1. Chapter 9 Memory

2.  Memory  persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information  Flashbulb Memory  a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

3. Information Processing  Memory as Information Processing  similar to a computer  write to file  save to disk  read from disk

4. Memory  Encoding  Getting information into our brain  Storage  Retaining information over time  Retrieval  Getting information out of memory

5. Atkinson/Shiffrin’s 3-Stage Processing Model  Sensory Memory  the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system  Short-Term Memory/Working Memory  activated memory that holds a few items briefly  focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information  Long-Term Memory  the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

6. Encoding  Automatic Processing  unconscious encoding of incidental information  space  time  frequency  well-learned information  word meanings  we can learn automatic processing  reading backwards

7. Encoding  Effortful Processing  requires attention and conscious effort  Can help memory through Rehearsal  Rehearsal  conscious repetition of information  to maintain it in consciousness  to encode it for storage

8. Encoding  Spacing Effect  distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice  Serial Position Effect  Tendency to remember first & last better than middle  Self in Reference Effect  Good recall for those things that we can relate to ourselves

9. What Do We Encode?  Visual Encoding  encoding of picture images  Acoustic Encoding  encoding of sound  especially sound of words  Semantic Encoding  encoding of meaning  including meaning of words

10. Encoding - Imagery  Imagery  mental pictures  a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding  Mnemonics  memory aids  especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

11. Encoding - Chunking  Definition: organizing items into familiar, meaningful units  Phone #’s  Often occurs automatically  Use of acronyms  HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior  Ex:  Bun: Light/Shadow  Shoe: Size Distance  Tree: Interposition  Door: Shape Constancy

12. Encoding - Hierarchies  Broad concepts subdivided into categories and subcategories  More information remembered if grouped than if presented randomly  Ex:  Organize Chapter  Take chapter notes in outline form

13. Storage: Retaining Information  Iconic Memory  Short memory for what you see  a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second  Echoic Memory  Short memory for what you hear

14. Storage: Short-Term Memory  Short-Term Memory  limited in duration and capacity  “magical” number 7+/-2

15. Storage: Long-Term Memory  How does storage work?  Karl Lashley (1950)  rats learn maze  lesioned cortex  Conclusion: memory not stored in 1 specific spot  Synaptic changes  Experience modifies brain’s neural networks  Increased activity in pathway connections are formed/strengthened  Long-term Potentiation  increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation  Drugs that block LTP in mice interfere with learning

16. Storage: Long-Term Memory  Strong emotions make for stronger memories  some stress hormones boost learning and retention  When excited or stressed, release hormones that boost memory

17. Storage: Long-Term Memory  Explicit Memory  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare  also called declarative memory  hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage  Example of birds  Implicit Memory  retention independent of conscious recollection  also called procedural memory  Cerebellum – patient conditioned with tack

18. Retrieval: Getting Information Out  Recall  retrieve information learned earlier  fill-in-the blank test  Recognition  identify items previously learned  multiple-choice test

19. Retrieval  Priming  activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory  Ex:  Hear/see word “rabbit”  Picture in mind  Spell word _________

20. Retrieval Cues: Context  Deja Vu (French)--already seen  cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience  Mood-congruent Memory  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood  memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues  State-dependent Memory  what is learned in one state can more easily be remembered when in same state

21. Forgetting  Forgetting as encoding failure  Information never enters the long-term memory

22. Retrieval  Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

23. Forgetting as Interference  Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information  Proactive (forward acting) Interference  disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information  Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference  disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

24. Forgetting- Interference  Motivated Forgetting  people unknowingly revise memories  Repression  defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

25. Memory Construction  We filter information and fill in missing pieces  Misinformation Effect  incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event  Source Amnesia  attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

26. Memory Construction  Memories of Abuse  Repressed or Constructed?  Child sexual abuse does occur  Some adults do actually forget such episodes  False Memory Syndrome  condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience  sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

27. Memory Construction  Most people can agree on the following:  Injustice happens  Incest happens  Forgetting happens  Recovered memories are commonplace  Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable  Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable  Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

28. Improve Your Memory  Study repeatedly to boost recall  Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material  Make material personally meaningful  Use mnemonic devices  associate with peg words--something already stored  make up story  chunk--acronyms

29. Improve Your Memory  Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood  Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation  Minimize interference  Test your own knowledge  rehearse  determine what you do not yet know