1. Chapter 7
MEMORY

2. Media Assignment Questions
Does the media present psychology more as a science or more as a form of common sense?
Does the media present the diverse fields of psychology or only a few?
Does the media rely more on psychologist or self-proclaimed experts for information?
Does the media present psychological information more in a sober manner or in a sensationalistic manner?

3. Definition of Memory
An Internal Record or Representation of Some Prior Event or Experience

4. Definition of Constructive Process
Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories.
Memory is a Constructive Process

5. Four Models of Memory Information Processing Model
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
Levels of Processing Approach
Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model

6. Information Processing Approach
Memory is a process, analogous to a computer, where information goes through three basic processes – encoding, storage, and retrieval.

7. Encoding – Translating information into neural codes (language) – i. e
Encoding – Translating information into neural codes (language) – i.e. sensory (sound/visual image) into language.
Storage – Retaining neurally coded information over time.
Retrieval – Recovering information from memory storage.

8. Levels of Processing Approach
Memory depends on the degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered. Shallow processing leads to little memory, whereas deeper processing adds meaning and greater memory.

9. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model
Memory requires three different storage boxes or stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time. Sensory memory holds information for exceedingly short intervals, short-term memory retains information for approximately 30 seconds or less (unless renewed), and long-term memory provides relatively permanent storage.

10. Sensory Memory First Stage of Memory
What we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell first enters our sensory memory.
Lasts up to ½ a second for visual (iconic memory); ¼ to ½ a second for auditory but weaker echo (echoic memory) can last up to 4 seconds.

11. The Sensory Register Testing for Iconic Memory
Invented by George Sperling
A letter array is shown briefly
After array is gone, tone signals which row to report
Subjects recalled more letters when signaled to recall only one row compared to trying to recall all the letters
Figure 6.2 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs, 74 (Whole number 11), 1-29.

12. Short-Term Memory (STM) Second Stage of Memory
Temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory; capacity limited to five to nine items and duration is about 30 seconds.

13. Short-Term Memory Capacity Memory-Span Test
Read the top row of digits, then look away and repeat them back in order. Continue until a mistake is made. The average capacity is seven items of information.

14. Improving Short Term Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal – Repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory.
Chunking – Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk).

15. Short-Term Memory Capacity Chunking
Process of grouping distinct bits of information into larger wholes to increase short-term memory capacity.
Take 5 seconds to memorize as much as possible on the next slide.
Then, try to reproduce the arrangement of pieces.
Figure 6.6 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

17. Short-Term Memory Capacity The Value of Chunking
Was the number correct around seven pieces? Or, was the information chunked?

18. Short-Term Memory Duration of Short-Term Memory
Subjects memorized nonsense syllables, (e.g., MJK, ZRW).
To prevent rehearsal, they were given a distracter task during the waiting period.
When a cue was given, subjects tried to recall the letters.
Short-term memories vanish within twenty seconds.
Figure 6.7 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Peterson, L.R., & Peterson, M.J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58,

19. Short-Term Memory as a “Working Memory”
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Phonological Rehearsal Loop
Central Executive

20. Long Term Memory (LTM) Third Stage of Memory
Stores information for long periods of time; its capacity is virtually limitless, and its duration is relatively permanent.

21. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit/Declarative Memory – Subsystem within long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences.
Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory – Subsystem within long-term memory that consists of unconscious procedural skills, simple classically conditioned responses, and priming.

22. Improving Long-Term Memory
Three Key Strategies
Organization – Utilization of Hierarchies
Rehearsal – Utilization of Elaborative Rehearsal. One of the best ways to encode new information into long-term memory is to understand.
Retrieval – Utilization of a Retrieval Cue – Recognition.

23. Retrieval Strategies on Exams
Context and Retrieval
Mood Congruence
State-Dependent Retrieval

24. Long-Term Memory Forgetting The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Figure 6.17 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. (H. Roger & C. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Teachers College Press. (Original work published 1885.)

25. Forgetting Five Key Theories
Decay – Degrading with time.
Interference – one memory competing with, or trying to replace, another memory (retroactive and proactive interference).
Motivated Forgetting – unconscious wish to forget something unpleasant.
Encoding Failure – no need to remember precise details.
Retrieval Failure – momentarily inaccessible as a result of such things as interference, faulty cues, or emotional states.

26. Long-Term Memory Forgetting Can You Recognize a Penny?
One reason people forget is due to lack of encoding.
Figure 6.19 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The correctly drawn penny is A
Source:
Nickerson, R.S., & Adams, M.J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11,

27. Recognizing Problems with Forgetting
Serial Position Effect – remembering at the beginning (primary effect) and ending of a list (recency effect),
Source Amnesia – forgetting the true source of a memory.
Sleeper Effect – confusing reliable information with unreliable information.
Spacing of Practice – distributed practice vs. massed practice (cramming).

28. Biological Basis of Memory
Neuronal and Synaptic Changes in Memory
Long-term Potentiation – long-lasting increase in neural excitability believed to be a biological mechanism for learning and memory.
Repeated stimulation of a synapse can strengthen the synapse by causing the dendrites to grow more spines.
The ability of a particular neuron to release its neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased.
Hormonal Changes and Memory
Being stressed or excited naturally produce hormones that arouse the body, such as epinephrine and cortisol. These hormones affect the amygadala which stimulates the hippocampus and cerebral cortex affecting memory.

29. Location of Memories
Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain

30. Brain Area Connected to Memory
Amygdala
Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum
Hippocampal Formation
Thalamus
Cortex

32. Two Common Causes of Biological Memory Failure
Brain Injury
Retrograde Amnesia – loss of memory that occurs before the accident.
Anterograde Amnesia – loss of memory for events that occur after an accident.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in later life.

33. Eight Ways to Improve Memory
Pay attention and reduce interference.
Use rehearsal techniques
Improve your organization
Counteract the serial position effect
Manage your time
Use the encoding specificity principle
Employ self-monitoring and overlearning
Use Mnemonic Devices