1. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Biodiversity Chapter 13

2. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Outline: Biodiversity and Species Definitions Benefits of Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity  Human Caused Reductions Biodiversity Protection  ESA - Minimum Viable Populations  CITES Captive Breeding

3. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. BIODIVERSITY AND SPECIES Biodiversity Types:  Genetic Diversity - Measures variety of different versions of same genes.  Species Diversity - Measures number of different kinds of organisms within a community.  Ecological Diversity - Measures richness and complexity of a community.

4. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. What Are Species Species - Organisms of the same kind that are able to breed in nature and produce fertile offspring.  Underlying idea is that reproductive isolation prevents gene exchange and gives rise to new species. - Hybridization creates a dilemma.  Species identification often based on morphological characteristics.  DNA sequencing

5. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. How Many Species Currently 1.4 million species identified. Estimates range between 3-50 million.  May be 30 million insect species.  May be 10 million species on ocean floor.  Invertebrates make up 70% of all known species, and probably most of yet to be discovered species. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots.  NA and Europe only contain 10-15%.

6. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY Food  As many as 80,000 edible wild plant species could be utilized by humans. Drugs and Medicines  More than half of all prescriptions contain some natural product.  Pharmaceutical companies actively prospect tropical countries for products.

7. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Benefits of Biodiversity Ecological Benefits  Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and biogeochemical and hydrological cycles all depend on biodiversity. - Can a system function without all its integral parts ?

8. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Benefits of Biodiversity Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits  Cultural diversity inextricably linked to biodiversity.  USFWS estimates Americans spend $104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation.  Ecotourism can be an important form of sustainable economic development.  Existence (intrinsic) value.

9. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Extinction - Elimination of a species.  Normal process - In undisturbed ecosystems, background rate appears to be one species per decade.  In this century, human impacts have accelerated that rate, causing perhaps hundreds to thousands of extinctions annually.

10. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Natural Causes of Extinction Fossil Record suggests more than 99% of all species ever in existence are now extinct.  Most went extinct before humans arrived. - End of Cretaceous - Dinosaurs and 50% of existing genera disappeared. - Permian period - Two-thirds of all marine species and nearly half of all plant and animal families died out.

11. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Habitat Destruction  Biggest reason for current increase in extinction is habitat loss. - Habitat fragmentation divides populations into isolated groups vulnerable to catastrophic events. Hunting and Fishing  Over-harvesting of game species. - American Passenger Pigeon - Whales

12. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Habitat Fragmentation - Cadiz Township, WI

13. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Commercial Products and Live Specimens  Wildlife smuggling is very profitable. - Leopard fur / Rhinoceros horns  US Annual pet trade in wild species:  2 million reptiles  1 million amphibians and mammals  500,000 birds  128,000 tropical fish (often caught with cyanide above coral reefs)

14. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Predator and Pest Control Many animal populations have been greatly reduced or exterminated because they are regarded as dangerous to humans or livestock.  Animal control costs $20 million in federal and state funds annually. - 700,000 birds and mammals annually.  100,000 coyotes

15. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Predator and Pest Control Exotic Species Introductions  Exotic organisms - Organisms introduced into habitats where they are not native. - Biological Pollution  Kudzu Vine  Purple Loosestrife  Zebra Mussels  Asian Long-Horned Beetles

16. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Predator and Pest Control Diseases  When a disease is introduced into a new environment, natural balance may be tipped, leading to an epidemic. Pollution  Toxic Pollutants - Pesticides - Lead Genetic Assimilation

17. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION Hunting and Fishing Laws  By 1890’s, most states had enacted some hunting and fishing laws.  General idea was pragmatic, not aesthetic or moral preservation.

18. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Endangered Species Act Established in 1973.  Endangered are those considered in imminent danger of extinction.  Threatened are those likely to become endangered, at least locally, in the near future. - Vulnerable are those that are naturally rare or have been locally depleted to a level that puts them at risk.

19. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Endangered Species Act ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving Endangered Species:  Taking (harassing, harming, pursuing, hunting, shooting, killing, capturing, or collecting) either accidentally, or on purpose.  Selling  Importing into or Exporting out of the US  Possessing  Transporting or Shipping

20. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Endangered Species Act Currently, US has 1,500 species on its Endangered and Threatened lists, and about 500 candidate species waiting for consideration.  Number reflects more about human interests than actual status. - Invertebrates make up 75% of all species, but only 9% of T/E list.  Listing process is extremely slow.

21. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Recovery Plans Once a species is listed, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels.  Total cost of all current plans = $5 billion. Opponents have continually tried to require economic costs and benefits be incorporated into planning.

22. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Private Land and Critical Habitat Eighty percent of habitat for more than half of all listed species is on non-public property.  Supreme Court has ruled destroying habitat equates to taking. - USFWS has been negotiating Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) with private landowners.  Landowners allowed to harvest resources as long as species benefit.

23. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Reauthorizing ESA ESA officially expired in 1992.  Proposals for new ESA generally fall into two general categories: - Versions that encourage ecosystem and habitat protection rather than individual species. - Safe Harbor policies that allow exceptions to critical habitat designations.  (Economic Considerations)

24. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Minimum Viable Populations Minimum Viable Population is the minimum population size required for long-term viability of a species.  Island biogeography - Small islands far from a mainland have fewer terrestrial species than larger, closer islands. - MacArthur and Wilson proposed that species diversity is a balance between colonization and extinction rates.

25. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Minimum Viable Populations Diversity Loss in Small Populations:  Founder Effect - Few individuals start a new population.  Demographic Bottleneck - Few individuals survive catastrophe.  Genetic Drift - Random reduction in gene frequency.  Inbreeding - Mating between related individuals.

26. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Habitat Protection Latest management strategy is preservation of ecosystems supporting maximum biological diversity rather than species-by- species approach.  Gap Analysis - Conservationists and wildlife managers look for unprotected landscapes that are rich in species. - Broad-scale, holistic approach.

27. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Biodiversity Map

28. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. International Wildlife Treaties Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species (CITES) - 1975.  Regulated trade in living specimens and products derived from listed species.

29. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. CAPTIVE BREEDING Breeding programs in zoos and botanical gardens are one method of saving threatened species.  Repositories of genetic diversity. - Most mammals in NA zoos are now produced from captive-breeding programs.  Some zoos now participating in reintroduction programs.

30. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Captive Breeding Zoos have limited space for captive breeding.  How many can / should we save ?  Ultimate problem is that natural habitat may disappear while we are conserving the species itself. Another alternative is to attempt to save species in the wild.  Provide funding for protection in native habitats.

31. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed. Summary: Biodiversity and Species Definitions Benefits of Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity  Human Caused Reductions Biodiversity Protection  ESA - Minimum Viable Populations  CITES Captive Breeding

32. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7 th Ed.