1. Sequencing and Feedback in Teaching Grammar

2. Problems in Sequencing ► How do we sequence the grammar in a teaching programme? ► From easy to difficult? ► Not easy to determine ► Based on some form of ‘natural order’? ► Research is inconclusive about a natural order

3. Problems in Sequencing ► If declarative knowledge, then presented bit by bit ► Additive process ► But, difficult structures may mean they should be introduced early so that given more treatment ► What do students need then? Often when we teach, we require students to use a structure that will only be taught later. ► 10 divided by 2 is a passive construction; passives taught later, 10 divided by 2 is taught early

4. Traditional Divide-up-the-grammar curriculum (Byrd & Reid, 1998) ► LEVEL 1 (Beginner)  Simple sentences  Compound sentences  Nouns (single and plural)  Pronouns (objective, demonstratives) ► LEVEL 2 (Low Intermediate)  75% mastery of level 1  Complex sentences with time clauses  Noun phrases  Pronouns (reflexive)  Simple questions (yes and no) ► LEVEL 3 (Intermediate)  75% mastery of level 2  Complex sentences with cause and effect clauses  Simple questions  Nouns (collective and abstract)

5. Problems in this Tradition ► Division is inauthentic because students often cannot wait for a higher level to use the language (e.g. cannot delay noun phrases because language will have NPs) ► Division is unrealistic because it is difficult to “master” a grammatical structure in a specific period of study ► Cannot characterise “Beginner” in terms of features such as simple past tense and nouns; or “Intermediate” in terms of progressive tense and abstract nouns

6. Implications of this tradition ► Curriculum and materials can become distorted ► E.g. simplifying texts can lead to more difficult texts as loss of connectors and other language used to keep text coherent; Ss learn to read unnatural texts rather than developing strategies for reading authentic texts

7. ► Sometimes, difficulty is not the grammar but the background knowledge ► Message: cannot build around lists of grammar structures that limit student access to certain items – and that require reading materials that they use contain only those items

8. Alternative: Ordering according to clusters ► Particular features of grammar are clustered in sets used in different types of discourse (Biber, 1988) ► Narrative communication (story telling etc. based on past time events) ► Interactive communication (interacting with audience by asking questions and using language that is thought of as ‘oral’) ► Informational communication (stating facts, and using language to give information)

9. Narratives ► Simple past tense with some past perfect and past progressive; ► Proper nouns for characters ► Personal pronouns (especially he and she) ► Time words and phrases to coordinate chronological organisation of passages

10. Informational Writing ► Long, complicated Noun phrases  A very accurate tool for measuring work  The main component of the device ► Passive verbs (as focus is on processes) ► A limited set of verbs ► Present tense

11. Principles of Sequencing Grammar (Byrd & Reid, 1998) ► P1: Students work with authentic reading materials and take on authentic writing tasks ► P2: These materials require Ss to learn about grammatical features characteristic of the text/task ► P3: Grammar is selected based on the features of the discourse they have to handle ► P4: Grammar is presented in clusters rather than in specific segments of a course ► P5: Proficiency levels are determined not by individual items of grammar but by complexity of reading/writing text/task ► Curriculum gives Ss multiple opportunities to encounter these grammar structures (spiral/cyclical model)

12. Sequencing Now ► Focus on fluency activities have given rise to new criteria for sequencing (functions, notions/concepts, even integration with skills) ► Focus on fluency allows for some student inaccurate use of forms ► In focus on fluency, impossible to predetermine grammatical structures

13. FEEDBACK ► Various types ► Direct and indirect ► Positive and Negative ► Cognitive and Affective ► Recast/reformulation; repair; clarification requests etc. (see. Pp 117-119 Thornbury)

14. Decisions to make ► Who responds?  Teachers/classmates/self ► What kind of response?  Positive as well as corrective/prescriptive/just to errors?/just to content?/detailed or holistic? ► When to respond?  In speaking – immediately?/at the end of class?/when common errors are made?/when errors affect meaning? ► Where to respond?  In writing – in the margins/end comments ► Why respond?  To teach/to grade/to build trust/to stimulate revision

15. ► Should teachers  Respond to every error/not respond to errors/respond to only what they are teaching ► As teachers identify errors, should they  Correct them/merely indicate them/prioritise errors based on – how much they intefere with communication; commoness of occurrence; reason(s) for occurrence (error gravity) ► How might a teacher incorporate errors into overall evaluation? ► How can teachers analyse patterns of error that will help students learn correct language structures?

16. Common Sources of Errors ► First language interference ► Overgeneralisation of rules ► High level of difficulty of the language structure (should not confuse difficult to explain and difficult to learn) ► Production errors – called mistakes

17. Awareness of Student Preference ► Quantity: Every error marked? Only important errors marked? ► Affect: How does the student react to teacher feedback? (Cognitive feedback – explanation; affective feedback – motivational) ► Interaction: Does the student learn better through interaction/negotiation

18. ► Bottom line in treating errors is that teachers “should not stifle the students’ attempts at production by smothering them with corrective feedback” (H.D.Brown)