1. Chapter 18: The 18 th Century: European States, International Wars and Social Change Economic Expansion and Social Change

2. Growth of Population  Slowly, but steadily  Decline in death rate  More food  Better food  Better transportation of food  End of bubonic plague  Still many diseases  Typhus  Smallpox  Influenza  dysentery

3. EFFECTS OF THE POPULATION EXPLOSION  Industrial Revolution required rapid expansion of labor supply & consumers  Europeans became younger - more young adults & children  Expanded markets, but…  Older generations could not keep up with facilities necessary to meet expanding populations (housing, educational facilities, hospitals, etc.)

4. Childcare  Traditional:  lower class breastfeed  Upper hired wet nurses  Children are tiny adults  Changes (some due to Emile)  Childhood as own phase, comfy clothes = increased survival  All are important, not just 1 st son  Breastfeeding of own children increased

5. Childcare continued  English were the first to make toys just for kids  Jigsaw puzzles  Little Pretty Pocketbook (aimed to teach and play)  Aimed at upper class  Lower Classes still suffered  Many had to many children and did the unthinkable  Law in Austria that no child under 5 could sleep in parents’ bed  “Foundling homes” grew  Largest in St. Petersburg  Mortality rates sometimes 90% as they became overburdened

6. Marriage and Birthrate  Unless wealthy people married in mid/late 20s to afford own home  Illegitimacy was low in 1 st half of 1700s, but grew in 2 nd half  Birthrate  1 st in 1year of marriage with 1 each 2 or 3 years after = average of 5  Upper class English and French used birth control (coitus interruptus) and average declined from 6 to 3  40% of fertile women were unmarried at any given time  Children helped work in working class families

7. AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION England in the lead

8. MODERNIZATION OF AGRICULTURE  Growth of Commercial Agriculture  Crop rotation – lie fallow (unused)  Beginning in low-countries (Netherlands) 1700s  More efficient use of crop rotation  After soil depletion crop – plant soil restoring crops - like clover.

9. Charles “Turnip” Townsend  1725 – 1767 (English)  Soil loosening – large root plant  4 crop rotation – wheat, turnips, barley, clover (replaced fallow fields)  Learned how to use fertilizers in sandy soil  New crops supplied animal fodder

10. NEW CROPS  Tomatoes, potatoes, sugar beets  From Americas  Tomatoes & Potatoes increased vitamin and caloric level of Europeans’ diets  One acre of potatoes – feed a peasant & his family for a year  Famine of 1846 – Ireland and northern Europe  Sugar beets – vitamins, calories and sweets ended dependence on American sugarcane)

11. Use And Breeding Of Stock  Certain rotation of crops valuable food for farm stock  Enclosed pens – eases fertilizer collection  Raises crop yield  No need to slaughter animals in fall  More advances in breeding improved quality & supply of meat  Robert Bakewell (1725 – 1795) –pioneered new methods of animal husbandry which produced more milk & meat.

12. New Inventions  Jethro Tull  1674 – 1741  Wealthy landowner  Iron plow  Seed drill  Charles Newbold – cast- iron plow  John Deere – self-cleaning plow  Reaper – Cyrus McCormack

13. New Means of Land Organization  English Enclosure Movement  Commercial sheet farming  200 years before Industrial Revolution  mid-1700s – commercial (capitalist) farming  In 50 years – two million acres enclosed  Many independent farmers reduced to tenant farming

14. New Methods of Finance  Gold and Silver decline  $ shortage = new public and private banks – begin use of paper notes = credit expands  Bank of England 1694  Begins making loans (instead of just deposits and currency exchange)  Paper notes backed by its credit  National debt is now separate from Monarch’s (leads to larger armies and government programs)  Still Risky  Investments in colonial enterprises  French company of John Law had price driven to high and went bankrupt – French didn’t want to trust paper notes = slower economic growth  Great Britain  Borrowed a lot at low interest = advantage over France  Dutch still leading until 1800s

15. Supplemental Income  Cottage Industries: “Putting-Out” System

16. The “Putting-Out” System

17. The “spinning jenny”

18. Advantages of the Putting-Out System 1.Peasants could supplement their agricultural incomes.  Take advantage of winter months when farming was impossible. 2.Merchants could avoid the higher wages and often demanding regulations of urban labor.  Easier to reduce the number of workers when the economy was bad. 3.Merchants could acquire capital, which would later play a part in funding industrialization itself.  Peasants acquired future skills. 4.Young people could start separate households earlier, thus contributing to population growth.

19. Disadvantage of the Putting-Out System?? When demand rose [which it did in the 18c] this system proved inefficient.  Merchant-capitalists found it difficult to induce peasant-workers to increase their output. This dilemma eventually led to the factory system  All the workers were concentrated in one place under the supervision of a manager.  Water or steam power could easily be applied there.

20. “Apprentices at Their Looms” William Hogarth, 1687

21. Textile Innovations The “flying shuttle” Water frame spun yarn faster Mechanical looms (workers feared being replaced)

22. The “water frame” by Richard Arkwright