1. Spring, 2009Phys 521A1 Charged particle tracking

2. Spring, 2009Phys 521A2 Charged particle tracking Detectors provide position estimates of ionization deposits in either 2D or 3D Need to “connect the dots” to determine particle trajectories (tracks) Measure momentum trans- verse to a uniform magnetic field Detect particle position with a minimum of material (limit interactions, multiple Coulomb scattering) Occupancy, 2-track resolution high point density low point density

3. Spring, 2009Phys 521A3 Momentum measurement Often put detectors in a magnetic field to allow momentum measurement in the plane transverse to the field: –dp/dt = zevxB from which |p T | = zeRB –For p T in GeV, p T = 0.3zRB, with R in meters, B in Tesla Full momentum requires additional measurement of track angle w.r.t. magnetic field Curvature is measured; for an arc section this corresponds to measuring the sagitta Uncertainty in curvature measurement κ set by detector Uncertainty in p t is then δp t = -0.15 z B δκ / κ 2 so σ(p t ) = p t 2 [σ(κ) / 0.15 z B], i.e. is proportional to p t 2.

4. Spring, 2009Phys 521A4 Magnets Resolution criteria for charged particle momentum measurements often require strong (Tesla-scale), uniform magnetic fields over large volumes –Enormous physical forces  robust mechanical structures –Need to contain field  iron return yoke –Now almost always superconducting to reduce power consumption and cooling requirements Geometries: –Fixed target – usually dipole field –Colliding beam – axial (at center), toroidal (at large radii) Material budget: magnet plus cryostat represent “dead” material, degrade resolution of external calorimeters –EM calorimeters often designed to sit inside magnet

5. Spring, 2009Phys 521A5

6. Spring, 2009Phys 521A6 Calibration Calibration needs –Electronics (gain, time offsets, noise thresholds) –Geometric (field distortions, mechanical tolerances, wire sag…) –Dedicated system required (e.g. a laser)? –Time variation of calibrations Once and for all (e.g., endplate hole positions, magnetic field mapping…) Continuous (atmospheric pressure, temperature…) Sporadic (changes in gas mixture or HV settings…) Often takes years to get optimum resolution performance, and systematic errors due to calibration can still dominate the measurement of some track parameters (e.g. impact parameter)

7. Spring, 2009Phys 521A7 Alignment Bootstrapping calibration using real tracks usually needed; implies statistical uncertainty on calibration parameters  systematic uncertainty on hit positions, often correlated between hits Alignment with other detectors also needed (rotations and offsets)

8. Spring, 2009Phys 521A8 Calorimeters

9. Spring, 2009Phys 521A9 Electromagnetic calorimeters Calorimeters measure deposited energy; initial particle is destroyed Recall basic features of EM cascades –Bremsstrahlung and pair production in stages –Particle number grows exponentially until (E 0 /N) < E C –Both N and deposited ionization from e ± are proportional to E 0 –Longitudinal development governed by radiation length X 0 –Transverse shower size governed by multiple Coulomb scattering; parameterized using Moliere radius R M Two types of EM calorimeters: –Homogeneous (100% active medium) –Sampling (absorber and active layers interspersed) Physical size dictated by X 0 of medium, so most use high-Z material

10. Spring, 2009Phys 521A10

11. Spring, 2009Phys 521A11 Homogeneous calorimeters Not finely segmented Cost is often high Issues with uniformity, surface properties (tot. int. refl.) Measured quantity = light output in ~visible range Two main types: –Inorganic scintillators (e.g. CsI(Tl)) High light yield Slow signal development (100s of ns) –Cherenkov light (e.g. lead glass) Lower yield (<0.1% relative to scintillators) prompt signal

12. Spring, 2009Phys 521A12 Sampling EM calorimeters High-z absorber interspersed with sensitive element Detect number of shower particles or ionization using scintillating tiles or fibers, MWPC, liquid noble gases, solid state detectors Flexible segmentation allows measurement of both longitudinal and transverse shower development Sampling fraction: Resolution:

13. Spring, 2009Phys 521A13 Energy resolution Shower energy proportional to detected signal (energy or number of particles)  σ(E)/E = a / √E Contrast with tracking in B field, where σ(p t ) = C p t 2 In addition to statistical behavior, systematic uncertainties enter resolution –Shower leakage (lack of containment), gain calibration, non- linearity of response σ(E)/E = b –Electronic noise: not proportional to detected energy, so from this source σ(E)/E = c / E Statistic fluctuations “Constant term” (calibration, non-linearity, etc Noise, etc

14. Spring, 2009Phys 521A14 Typical EM energy resolution Homogeneous calorimeters: Sampling calorimeters:

15. Spring, 2009Phys 521A15 Electromagnetic Shower Development Some considerations on energy resolution Energy leakage Longitudinal leakage More X 0 needed to contain  initiated shower Lateral leakage ~ No energy dependence EGS4 simulations From Mauricio Barbi, TSI’07 lectures

16. Spring, 2009Phys 521A16

17. Spring, 2009Phys 521A17 Calorimeter reconstruction Transform ADC counts to energy (next slide) Form clusters from regions of contiguous energy deposit; –Many algorithms available, e.g. simple nσ noise cut, separate cuts for cluster seed, surrounding cells (4/2/0…) –separation or not of local cluster maxima into sub-clusters… –Determine cluster position (energy-weighted sum) Additional corrections based on environment –Charged track pointing to cluster or not? –Cluster size/shape consistent with e /γ?

18. Spring, 2009Phys 521A18 Calorimeter calibration Electronic calibration – response to known input pulses, determine rms noise (pedestal), gain –Changes in time due to aging of sensors, electronics Absolute energy calibration: ADC counts / MeV, requires calibration source of known energy (can be from data) –Changes in time as active medium ages (radiation, chemical…) Correction for “pile-up” of ionizing radiation –Depends sensitively on response time of detector –Out-of-time energy from previous collisions, cosmic rays, delayed decays of excited nuclei… –In-time multiple interactions (e.g. at LHC)