1. Ch 18 – Big-O Notation: Sorting & Searching Efficiencies Our interest in the efficiency of an algorithm is based on solving problems of large size. If the array to be searched/sorted is relatively small, it doesn’t much matter whether or not the algorithm is efficient because the number of comparisons is reasonably small. But as the size of the array grows, the number of comparisons grows even faster. Our interest in the efficiency of an algorithm is based on solving problems of large size. If the array to be searched/sorted is relatively small, it doesn’t much matter whether or not the algorithm is efficient because the number of comparisons is reasonably small. But as the size of the array grows, the number of comparisons grows even faster. So the amount of work an algorithm grows proportionally with the size of the list. We can approximate the amount of work an algorithm does by a mathematical notation called the Order of Magnitude or Big-O notation. So the amount of work an algorithm grows proportionally with the size of the list. We can approximate the amount of work an algorithm does by a mathematical notation called the Order of Magnitude or Big-O notation. The order of magnitude of a function is the same as the degree of the polynomial. That is, it is the term in the function that dominates the computation for large amounts of data. Consider the following: The order of magnitude of a function is the same as the degree of the polynomial. That is, it is the term in the function that dominates the computation for large amounts of data. Consider the following: f(N) = N 4 + 100N 2 + 10N + 50 The order of f(N) is N 4. Written O(N 4 ) in Big-O notation. That is, N 4 will dominate the function for large N. N 4 will dominate f(N) and is so much more than 50, 10N, or even 100N 2 that we ignore the other terms. That doesn’t mean that the other terms do not contribute to the computation time; it only means that they are NOT SIGNIFICANT in our approximation. The order of f(N) is N 4. Written O(N 4 ) in Big-O notation. That is, N 4 will dominate the function for large N. N 4 will dominate f(N) and is so much more than 50, 10N, or even 100N 2 that we ignore the other terms. That doesn’t mean that the other terms do not contribute to the computation time; it only means that they are NOT SIGNIFICANT in our approximation. Consider the following table representing a comparison of rates of growth. The table shows how the size (N) of the list effects the amount of work needed to complete different types of algorithms. Consider the following table representing a comparison of rates of growth. The table shows how the size (N) of the list effects the amount of work needed to complete different types of algorithms. Nlog 2 NNlog 2 NN 2 N 3 2 N 100112100112100112100112 212484212484212484212484 428166416 832464512256 16464256409665,536 3251601024327682,147,483,643 6463844096362,1445 yrs on Super Computer 1287896163842.097,152600000 times age of universe 2568204865,53616,777,216Don’t Ask! Common orders of magnitude:Logarithmic O(log 2 N), Linear O(N), Quadratic O(N 2 ), Cubic O(N 3 ) Common orders of magnitude:Logarithmic O(log 2 N), Linear O(N), Quadratic O(N 2 ), Cubic O(N 3 )

2. SEARCHING Efficiencies using Big-O : Searching a phone book of 50,000 people. SEARCHING Efficiencies using Big-O : Searching a phone book of 50,000 people.  Linear Search – A 50,000 element array would require 50,000 comparisons in a worst case scenario. The amount of work, comparisons, is in a direct correlation with the size of the list.  Binary Search – Is based on repeated divisions of 2. Consider the following: Divisions of 2N=50,000Fraction of ListMathematically Stated 125,0001/2 212,5001/4The greatest number of comparisons will be K, 36,2501/8where K is the first value such that: 43,1251/16 51,5631/322 K > N or 2 K > 50,000 67811/64 73901/1282 15 = 32,768 and 2 16 = 65,536 81951/256 9981/512Written as a logarithm ( exp = log base answer) 10491/1024 11241/2048 2 16 = 65,536 or 16 = log 2 65,536 12121/4096 1361/8192Specifically for N = 50,000 1431/16,384log 2 50,000 = 15.6 1521/32,768 1611/65,536  Therefore, the amount of work for a Binary Search is logarithmic in nature. The maximum number of comparisons of a 50,000 element array using the Binary Search would be 16! The only stipulation is that the list must be sorted first. Summarizing our searching algorithms: Summarizing our searching algorithms:  Sequential Search is an O(N) algorithm.  Binary Search is an O(log 2 N) algorithm. Sometimes written as O(log N).

3. SIMPLE SORTING Efficiencies using Big- O SIMPLE SORTING Efficiencies using Big- O  Selection/Exchange Sort :  Will always have N(N-1)/2 comparisons because it’s looping sequence of is always the same! for(int i=0; i<list.length-1 ; i++) for(int j=0; j<list.length ; j++) for(int j=0; j<list.length ; j++)  Therefore, the Selection/Exchange Sorts order of magnitude is:  O(N 2 )  Bubble Sort - Consider the following more efficient version: int k = 1;//need at least 1 pass do{ sorted = true; sorted = true; for(int j = 0; j < list.length – k ; j++) for(int j = 0; j < list.length – k ; j++) if( list[j] > list[j+1] ){ swap(list, j); swap(list, j); sorted = false; sorted = false;} k++; k++; }while (!sorted);  Will have (2KN-K-K 2 )/2 comparisons because it depends on the makeup of the array. Since K is between 1 & N-1, we can say that K is on the same order as N.Since K is between 1 & N-1, we can say that K is on the same order as N. 2KN will then dominate the function and is proportional to N 2.2KN will then dominate the function and is proportional to N 2.  Therefore, the Bubble Sort order of magnitude is:  O(N 2 )  Which of these sorts is the most efficient on large amounts of data?  Because the Selection/Exchange Sort & Bubble Sort are both O(N 2 ) algorithms, for large values of N there is NO SIGNIFICANT difference in the amount of work they do! The Bubble sort may require somewhat fewer comparisons, but the difference on average is not significant.  Most Simple Sorts are O(N 2 )

4. RECURSIVE SORTING Efficiencies using Big- O RECURSIVE SORTING Efficiencies using Big- O  QUICK SORT – The Quick Sort, like the Binary Search, uses the “divide & conquer” approach. The original list is divided into two lists. Each of these lists is again divided into two lists. This division continues until each list has exactly 1 element. Assuming that the splitting value is the median of the list, each sublist has approximately one-half as many elements as the previous list. It would therefore take up to log 2 N levels of splits to complete. DataLevelOrder 10 O(N) 21 O(N) 42 O(N) 83 O(N) :: : Nlog 2 N O(N)  At level 0, each number including the splitting value is compared to the splitting value. So N comparisons are made at level 0.  At level 1, there are two lists, one with k elements, and one with N-k elements. In the first list with k elements, k comparisons are made (each of the k elements to the new splitting value). In the second list of N-k elements, N-k comparisons are made. At level 1, a total of k + (N-k) or N comparisons are made. And so on for all levels.  Therefore, the total number of comparisons made to order a list of N elements using Quick Sort is the number of splitting levels log 2 N times the number of comparisons at each level N.  Consequently, the Quick Sort order of magnitude is O(Nlog 2 N).

5. Big-O Summary: Big-O Summary:  Revisiting the rates of growth table from before: Nlog 2 NNlog 2 NN 2 N 3 2 N 101112101112101112101112 212484212484212484212484 428166416 832464512256 16464256409665,536 3251601024327682,147,483,643 The order of magnitude, Big-O, of a function is the degree of the function. That is, it is the term that dominates the function for large size (N). This is an approximation that gives us a mathematical way to compare relative efficiencies for specific sorts & searches. The order of magnitude, Big-O, of a function is the degree of the function. That is, it is the term that dominates the function for large size (N). This is an approximation that gives us a mathematical way to compare relative efficiencies for specific sorts & searches. Common Orders of Magnitude: Common Orders of Magnitude:  O(N) Linear:Traversing a list sequentially one element at a time.  O(log 2 N)Logarithmic:Binary Search – Repeated divisions of 2.  O(N 2 )Quadratic:Simple sorts. Traversing a 2-Dimensional array.  O(N 3 )Cubic: Traversing a 3-Dimensional array. So what’s the most efficient algorithm in terms of Big-O notation: So what’s the most efficient algorithm in terms of Big-O notation:  O(1)Constant Time:The size of the list doesn’t effect the time at all! Examples:Swapping data, accessing a component of an array through its index, inserting data into an array through its index. Hash tables arrange data so that they can be accessed directly through some ID number. In other words, their ID numbers have semantic meaning and are the indices of the array storing the data. Continued at a college near you!