1. Performance Studies: Introduction to Writing Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre www.ul.ie/rwc

2. Regional Writing Centre2 Workshop outline  Anxieties and fears of writing  Key considerations  The writing process  Essay structure and organisation  Developing an argument  Features of academic writing  Strategies to boost writing skills  Motivation

3. Regional Writing Centre3 Anxieties and fears Freewriting  What I worry about and struggle when faced with a writing task.  Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes.  Write in sentences.  Do not edit or censor your writing.  Private writing — no one will read it.

4. Regional Writing Centre4 Anxieties and fears  Reflection What impact did the previous exercise have on you? How might this type of writing activity be useful?  Discussion What do you worry about or struggle when faced with a writing task? How will you overcome these anxieties and fears?

5. Regional Writing Centre5 Difficulties associated with writing  Anxiety and fear of writing  Lack of confidence and motivation  Fear of making your writing public  Cracking the codes of academic writing  Getting started  Getting stuck – writers’ block  Lack of guidance, practice and feedback  Misconceptions of writing Good writing skills are innate X Think first, then write X

6. Regional Writing Centre6 Anxieties and fears  Dealing with these anxieties and fears  Readings: How to be a Student (Moore and Murphy, 2006) 66 Playing to your strengths 68 Controlling worry 99 Believing in yourself  Focus on your strengths as a writer: What are these strengths?  Are there areas where you need to improve as a writer?

7. Key Considerations

8. Regional Writing Centre8 Key tasks for academic writers  Participating in academic conversations  Developing and advancing balanced arguments  Exploring your personal writing process  Developing strategies that work for you

9. Regional Writing Centre9 Key stages in the writing process  Pre-writing  Drafting  Revision  Editing and Proofreading

10. Regional Writing Centre10 Example: Pre-writing  Planning Analysing the assignment questionthe assignment question Evaluating the rhetorical situation, or context, into which you write Choosing and focusing your topic Establishing an organising principle  Gathering information Entering the discourse on your topic Taking notes as a strategy to avoid charges of plagiarism Evaluating sources

11. Regional Writing Centre11 Rhetorical situation  Occasion  Topic  Audience  Purpose  Writer

12. Regional Writing Centre12 Establishing an organising principle  What is the question that you are trying to answer?  What claim are you trying to defend?  What problem are you trying to solve?  What hypothesis are you attempting to affirm or negate?  Everything that follows will inform the answer, the defence, the solution or the affirmation or negation.

13. Regional Writing Centre13 Organising principles  When the thesis is… …a question, the rest of the paper is structured around the answer. …a problem, the rest of the paper is structured around the solution. …a claim, the rest of the paper is structured around the defence. …a hypothesis, the rest of the paper is structured around the attempt to affirm or negate that hypothesis.

14. Regional Writing Centre14 Example: Thesis statement The status of women in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years in the areas of economic independence, political rights, educational opportunities, and social status; yet, when compared to the status of women in developed countries, it is still pretty low (Oshima and Hogue, 2006:105).

15. Regional Writing Centre15 Essay structure  Organise the essay so that the argument unfolds in a clearly stated, detailed, logical, linear progression and arrangement of ideas. Introduction: present the thesis, hypothesis, or question that you will try to defend, prove or disprove, or answer. Sections: to support the thesis Conclusions

16. Regional Writing Centre16 The introduction  In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the essay To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance.

17. Regional Writing Centre17 The introduction  The introduction has two parts: General statements.  General statements attract a reader’s attention, and give background information on the topic. A thesis statement  States the main topic.  Sometimes indicates sub-topics.  Will sometimes indicate how the essay is to be organised.  Is usually the last sentence in the introduction.

18. Regional Writing Centre18 Organising paragraphs  Build upon the claims made in the introduction, develop your topic and prove your points  The purpose of your argument will dictate how you organise your paragraphs General ↔ specific information Weakest claims ↔ strongest claims Address/offer counterarguments as you develop main points or after you have made your main claims

19. Regional Writing Centre19 Academic ethos and structure  Arguments are inter-textual: other people who talk about this question (problem/ claim/hypothesis) use evidence to support their conclusions. That evidence and those arguments serve as support for your conclusions also.  Arguments are balanced. All sides need to be accounted for. Truth is established by a consideration of all of the evidence.  Your conclusion should be a defence of the evidence that supports your position.

20. Regional Writing Centre20 Advancing the argument  Advance your argument by giving evidence which is valid and reliable.  Evidence can consist of facts or reliable statistics, examples, educated opinions in the form of quotations, or summaries and paraphrases of ideas, from knowledgeable sources.  When referring to the opinions of those you have read, be clear that you defer to the opinion, or that you object to it (be critical but polite).

21. Regional Writing Centre21 Advancing the argument  Anticipate and address counterarguments or objections in order to strengthen your argument.  Present each argument fairly and objectively.  Show the reader that you have considered other sides of the argument.  Leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments.

22. Regional Writing Centre22 Persuasion and truth in academic writing  Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive.  An argument should be persuasive, but do not sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion.  Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths.  The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.

23. Regional Writing Centre23 Tips Leedy (2001:183) cites Marius (1989) in highlighting 4 rules for an argument ‘state your arguments early in the game’ – present and interpret data; ‘provide examples to support any assertion you make’; give the fairest possible treatment of any perspectives different from your own’ – may support or disagree with them; ‘point out the weaknesses of your own argument’ – by doing this you show objectivity as a researcher.

24. Regional Writing Centre24 Tips Pursue your argument logically. Do not only describe, but evaluate and interpret also. Establish your argument in the introduction — in a thesis statement. Advance your argument by giving evidence. Do not reiterate evidence already provided, but refer back to something you have already stated.  Lines of argument should flow linearly.  Paragraphs carry arguments.

25. Regional Writing Centre25 Flow  Logical method of development  Effective transition signals  Good signposting  Consistent point of view  Conciseness (careful word choice)  Clarity of expression  Paragraph structure Unity Coherence

26. Regional Writing Centre26 Paragraph structure  What is a paragraph? Series of sentences Coherent (introduction, middle, end) Common theme  Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea.  Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas.  The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments.  The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next.  Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions.

27. Regional Writing Centre27 Paragraph structure  Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence.  A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed.  A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.

28. Regional Writing Centre28 Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences  The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and Argumentation based on the evidence presented. Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.

29. Regional Writing Centre29 Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences  Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence.  Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or  They can paraphrase the topic sentence.

30. Regional Writing Centre30 Paragraph structure: Unity  Paragraphs should be unified.  ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 18).

31. Regional Writing Centre31 Paragraph structure: Coherence  Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue, 2006: 22)

32. Regional Writing Centre32 Example: (Meei-Fang et al., 2007: 471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

33. Regional Writing Centre33 Paragraph structure: Transition signals  Transition signals do exactly what it says on the tin: they ‘ signal ’. They can signal relationships between sentences, just as they can signal relationships between paragraphs.  Example: ‘ Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives ’ (Gillet, 2005).  The signal indicates the final point in a series of points.

34. Regional Writing Centre34 Sentence structure  Vary your rhythm by using a variety of sentence types and patterns. Use a combination of Simple sentences Compound sentences Complex sentences Compound-Complex sentences  Do not limit yourself to simple sentences or linking sentences using “and”/”but”.

35. Revision, Editing and Proofreading

36. Regional Writing Centre36 Revising (Global)  Global issues (organisation and structure): Does the text achieve your writing goals as established in your evaluation of the rhetorical situation (writing context) and by your thesis? Is there deviation, wander and digression? Does each paragraph treat in a controlled manner an identifiable idea, and does that idea follow logically the ideas expressed in previous paragraphs and do they allow readers to predict the ideas expressed in the paragraphs that follow?

37. Regional Writing Centre37 Revising (Global)  “If the process of writing has changed your views, consider rethinking the thesis and reworking the paper” ( Ebest et al., 2004:14 ).  How does the introduction fit in with the body of the paper? Did you address what you said you would address? Did you fulfil your promises?  Does your conclusion take into account the discoveries made during your research and writing processes.  Strategy: Outline your paper, now that you have finished it.

38. Regional Writing Centre38 Revising (Local)  Local issues (editing and proofreading): Look at logical and grammatical relations as expressed within paragraph boundaries. Is the relationship between pronouns and noun substitutes and the things they represent clear? Verbs express relationships of time and indicate person, number and mood. Are those relationships consistent and appropriate?

39. Regional Writing Centre39 Revising (Local)  Is information logically arranged, and is the organisation of your text clear?  Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and is the paragraph cogent, coherent and unified?  Do your sentences express complete ideas, and do you vary your structures? Are they grammatical? What about the mechanics?

40. Regional Writing Centre40 Checklists and Feedback  Before flying, pilots go through a methodical check of their plane. Do you have a checklist for your assignments before you hand them in?a checklist  How can you anticipate problems that you are unable to see? Get a peer to help. Ask for the feedback that you need and that is appropriate to the context.

41. Regional Writing Centre41 Revising (Local)  For example, this is an argumentative paper: “Were you convinced by my argument? Why? Or why not?”  I know I write poor introductions: “Could you identify my thesis?” Or “...could you tell me how the introduction attempts to grab the reader’s interest?”  I know that my sentences tend to be long and difficult to understand: “Could you read my paper aloud so that I can listen to it and mark where you are having difficulties in reading?”

42. Features of Academic Writing

43. Regional Writing Centre43 Features of academic writing  What distinguishes the writing in your discipline from other kinds of writing? Its purposes… The evidence that support its claims… Its features…

44. Regional Writing Centre44 Our boys may be facing real war – and I for one am scared By Kevin Myers Irish Independent, Wednesday October 31 2007Kevin Myers Look, I'm not trying to rock the boat here, but I can't be alone in worrying about the Army's new mission in Chad. I don't worry about the capability of the Army itself, for it is composed of the best people in Ireland: I admire patriotism, and the soldiers of the Army are true patriots who loyally serve their country and their flag. But who will they end up serving in Chad? Because it seems to me that a mightily complex command-chain is involved here. This, after all, is a UN-authorised EU operation, under the command of our own Major General Pat Nash. However, Pat will be based in Paris and the French have been involved in the region for over a century.

45. Regional Writing Centre45 Stylistic differences that mark academic writing  Complexity  Formality  Objectivity  Accuracy  Precision  Explicitness  Hedging  Responsibility (Gillet, 2008)

46. Strategies to Boost Writing Skills

47. Regional Writing Centre47 Writing to prompts  Strategies that might help boost my academic writing skills………  Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes.  Write in sentences.  Do not edit or censor your writing.  Discuss what you have written in pairs.

48. Regional Writing Centre48 Getting started  Create time and space for writing  Freewriting  Writing to prompts “What writing have you done for this assignment, what writing would you like to do……” “The aim of this assignment…”  Experiment with different types of writing

49. Regional Writing Centre49 Keep writing  Where and when do you write?  Why are you not writing? “I don’t feel ready to write.” Writers’ block  Getting unstuck Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) Set writing goals Write regularly Integrate writing into your thinking Break it down into a manageable process

50. Regional Writing Centre50 Keep writing  Be patient  Be creative  Taking pleasure in writing  Be proud of your writing  Get stuck in

51. Regional Writing Centre51 Cracking the codes  Analysing the genre/text and modelling  Generate a list of The most important features of academic writing Criteria to make your writing-strategies more effective The important conventions in your discipline What is/is not acceptable in your discipline  Student handbooks and guides for written submissions

52. Regional Writing Centre52 Writing time  Dealing with issues of time  Setting goals  “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005)  Do I need a big block of time to write productively?  “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17)  Outlining (Murray, 2005)

53. Regional Writing Centre53 Dialogue as a social strategy  Peer-review  Generative writing  The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing  Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102) Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.

54. Regional Writing Centre54 Motivation: It is not too late  Take stock of where you are now  Outline your research  Make plans based on the time that is left  Organise your time accordingly  Get writing  Keep writing  Allow time for revision and to put it all together  Let family and friends know  Be selfish with your time

55. Regional Writing Centre55

56. Regional Writing Centre56 Resources  Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL http://www.ul.ie/rwc/http://www.ul.ie/rwc/  Using English for Academic Purposes http://www.uefap.com/index.htm http://www.uefap.com/index.htm  The Writer’s Garden http://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htmhttp://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm  The OWL at Purdue http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/  The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.unc.edu/depts /wcweb/handouts/index.html http://www.unc.edu/depts /wcweb/handouts/index.html

57. Regional Writing Centre57 Resources  Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press.  Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press.  Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press.  Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press.  Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education.