1. INTEGRALS 5

2. Suumary 1. Definite Integral 2.FTC1,If, then g’(x) = f(x). 3. FTC2,, where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, F’ = f.

3. INTEGRALS We saw in Section 5.1 that a limit of the form arises when we compute an area.  We also saw that it arises when we try to find the distance traveled by an object. Equation 1

4. DEFINITE INTEGRAL Then, the definite integral of f from a to b is provided that this limit exists. If it does exist, we say f is integrable on [a, b]. Definition 2

5. In the notation,  f(x) is called the integrand.  a and b are called the limits of integration; a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit.  For now, the symbol dx has no meaning by itself; is all one symbol. The dx simply indicates that the independent variable is x. Note 1 NOTATION

6. DEFINITE INTEGRAL The definite integral is a number. It does not depend on x. In fact, we could use any letter in place of x without changing the value of the integral: Note 2

7. RIEMANN SUM The sum that occurs in Definition 2 is called a Riemann sum.  It is named after the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866). Note 3

8. RIEMANN SUM So, Definition 2 says that the definite integral of an integrable function can be approximated to within any desired degree of accuracy by a Riemann sum. Note 3

9. RIEMANN SUM We know that, if f happens to be positive, the Riemann sum can be interpreted as:  A sum of areas of approximating rectangles Note 3

10. RIEMANN SUM Comparing Definition 2 with the definition of area in Section 5.1, we see that the definite integral can be interpreted as:  The area under the curve y = f(x) from a to b Note 3

11. RIEMANN SUM If f takes on both positive and negative values, then the Riemann sum is:  The sum of the areas of the rectangles that lie above the x-axis and the negatives of the areas of the rectangles that lie below the x-axis  That is, the areas of the gold rectangles minus the areas of the blue rectangles Note 3

12. RIEMANN SUM When we take the limit of such Riemann sums, we get the situation illustrated here. Note 3 © Thomson Higher Education

13. NET AREA A definite integral can be interpreted as a net area, that is, a difference of areas:  A 1 is the area of the region above the x-axis and below the graph of f.  A 2 is the area of the region below the x-axis and above the graph of f. Note 3 © Thomson Higher Education

14. INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS We have defined the definite integral for an integrable function. However, not all functions are integrable. Note 5

15. INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS The following theorem shows that the most commonly occurring functions are, in fact, integrable.  It is proved in more advanced courses.

16. INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS If f is continuous on [a, b], or if f has only a finite number of jump discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b]. That is, the definite integral exists. Theorem 3

17. INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS If f is integrable on [a, b], then the limit in Definition 2 exists and gives the same value, no matter how we choose the sample points x i *.

18. PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRAL We assume f and g are continuous functions.

19. COMPARISON PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRAL These properties, in which we compare sizes of functions and sizes of integrals, are true only if a ≤ b.

20. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) is appropriately named.  It establishes a connection between the two branches of calculus—differential calculus and integral calculus. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

21. The first part of the FTC deals with functions defined by an equation of the form where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x varies between a and b. Equation 1 FTC

22.  Observe that g depends only on x, which appears as the variable upper limit in the integral.  If x is a fixed number, then the integral is a definite number.  If we then let x vary, the number also varies and defines a function of x denoted by g(x). FTC

23. If f happens to be a positive function, then g(x) can be interpreted as the area under the graph of f from a to x, where x can vary from a to b.  Think of g as the ‘area so far’ function, as seen here. FTC

24. FTC1 If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and g’(x) = f(x).

25. In words, the FTC1 says that the derivative of a definite integral with respect to its upper limit is the integrand evaluated at the upper limit. FTC1

26. Using Leibniz notation for derivatives, we can write the FTC1 as when f is continuous.  Roughly speaking, Equation 5 says that, if we first integrate f and then differentiate the result, we get back to the original function f. Equation 5 FTC1

27. Find the derivative of the function  As is continuous, the FTC1 gives: Example 2 FTC1

28. A formula of the form may seem like a strange way of defining a function.  However, books on physics, chemistry, and statistics are full of such functions. FTC1 Example 3

29. FRESNEL FUNCTION For instance, consider the Fresnel function  It is named after the French physicist Augustin Fresnel (1788–1827), famous for his works in optics.  It first appeared in Fresnel’s theory of the diffraction of light waves.  More recently, it has been applied to the design of highways. Example 3

30. FRESNEL FUNCTION The FTC1 tells us how to differentiate the Fresnel function: S’(x) = sin(πx 2 /2)  This means that we can apply all the methods of differential calculus to analyze S. Example 3

31. Find  Here, we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule in conjunction with the FTC1. Example 4 FTC1

32. Let u = x 4. Then, Example 4 FTC1

33. In Section 5.2, we computed integrals from the definition as a limit of Riemann sums and saw that this procedure is sometimes long and difficult.  The second part of the FTC (FTC2), which follows easily from the first part, provides us with a much simpler method for the evaluation of integrals. FTC1

34. FTC2 If f is continuous on [a, b], then where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, a function such that F’ = f.

35. FTC2 Let g’(x) = f(x). But F’(x)= f(x), Hence F(x) – g(x) = K (K constant) F(a) –g(a) = K F(a) – 0 = K => F(a) = K and Hence F(x) – g(x) = F(a) => F(b)-g(b) = F(a) F(b)-F(a) = g(b). Therefore Proof g(b)=

36. FTC2 The FTC2 states that, if we know an antiderivative F of f, then we can evaluate simply by subtracting the values of F at the endpoints of the interval [a, b].

37. FTC2 It’s very surprising that, which was defined by a complicated procedure involving all the values of f(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, can be found by knowing the values of F(x) at only two points, a and b.

38. FTC2 At first glance, the theorem may be surprising.  However, it becomes plausible if we interpret it in physical terms.

39. FTC2 If v(t) is the velocity of an object and s(t) is its position at time t, then v(t) = s’(t). So, s is an antiderivative of v.

40. FTC2 In Section 5.1, we considered an object that always moves in the positive direction. Then, we guessed that the area under the velocity curve equals the distance traveled.  In symbols,  That is exactly what the FTC2 says in this context.

41. FTC2 Evaluate the integral  The function f(x) = x 3 is continuous on [-2, 1] and we know from Section 4.9 that an antiderivative is F(x) = ¼x 4.  So, the FTC2 gives: Example 5

42. FTC2  Notice that the FTC2 says that we can use any antiderivative F of f.  So, we may as well use the simplest one, namely F(x) = ¼x 4, instead of ¼x 4 + 7 or ¼x 4 + C. Example 5

43. FTC2 We often use the notation So, the equation of the FTC2 can be written as:  Other common notations are and.

44. FTC2 Find the area under the parabola y = x 2 from 0 to 1.  An antiderivative of f(x) = x 2 is F(x) = (1/3)x 3.  The required area is found using the FTC2: Example 6

45. FTC2 Find the area under the cosine curve from 0 to b, where 0 ≤ b ≤ π/2.  Since an antiderivative of f(x) = cos x is F(x) = sin x, we have: Example 7

46. FTC2 In particular, taking b = π/2, we have proved that the area under the cosine curve from 0 to π/2 is sin(π/2) =1. Example 7

47. FTC2 When the French mathematician Gilles de Roberval first found the area under the sine and cosine curves in 1635, this was a very challenging problem that required a great deal of ingenuity.

48. FTC2 If we didn’t have the benefit of the FTC, we would have to compute a difficult limit of sums using either:  Obscure trigonometric identities  A computer algebra system (CAS), as in Section 5.1

49. FTC2 It was even more difficult for Roberval.  The apparatus of limits had not been invented in 1635.

50. FTC2 However, in the 1660s and 1670s, when the FTC was discovered by Barrow and exploited by Newton and Leibniz, such problems became very easy.  You can see this from Example 7.

51. FTC2 What is wrong with this calculation? Example 8

52. FTC2 To start, we notice that the calculation must be wrong because the answer is negative but f(x) = 1/x 2 ≥ 0 and Property 6 of integrals says that when f ≥ 0. Example 9

53. FTC2 The FTC applies to continuous functions.  It can’t be applied here because f(x) = 1/x 2 is not continuous on [-1, 3].  In fact, f has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0.  So, does not exist. Example 9

54. INVERSE PROCESSES We end this section by bringing together the two parts of the FTC.

55. FTC Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]. 1.If, then g’(x) = f(x). 2., where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, F’ = f.

56. SUMMARY The FTC is unquestionably the most important theorem in calculus.  Indeed, it ranks as one of the great accomplishments of the human mind.

57. SUMMARY Before it was discovered—from the time of Eudoxus and Archimedes to that of Galileo and Fermat—problems of finding areas, volumes, and lengths of curves were so difficult that only a genius could meet the challenge.

58. SUMMARY Now, armed with the systematic method that Newton and Leibniz fashioned out of the theorem, we will see in the chapters to come that these challenging problems are accessible to all of us.

59. Suumary 1. Definite Integral 2.FTC1,If, then g’(x) = f(x). 3. FTC2,, where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, F’ = f.