1. National Council for History Education History’s Habits of Mind

2. (1) Significance of the Past Understand the significance of the past to their own lives, both private and public, and to their society.

3. (1) Significance of the Past Question: How does the past impact our lives?

4. (2) What’s Important, and What’s Not Distinguish between the important and the inconsequential, to develop the “discriminating memory” needed for discerning judgment in public and private life

5. (2) What’s Important, What’s Not Question: How do we determine what is important and what is not?

6. (3) Historical Empathy Perceive past events and issues as they were experienced by people at the time, to develop historical empathy as opposed to present-mindedness

7. (3) Historical Empathy Question: How can we develop historical empathy?

8. (4) Shared Humanity Acquire at one and the same time a comprehension of diverse cultures and of shared humanity

9. (4) Shared Humanity Question: How do we recognize our diversity along with our shared humanity?

10. (5) Change and Consequences Understand how things happen and how things change, how human intentions matter, but also how their consequences are shaped by the means of carrying them out, in a tangle between purpose and process

11. (5) Change and Consequences Question: How do things change and what are the consequences?

12. (6) Change and Continuity Comprehend the interplay of change and continuity and avoid assuming either is somehow more natural, or more to be expected than the other

13. (6) Change and Continuity Examples: How do things change and how do they stay the same? Did it have to happen that way?

14. (7) History is Unfinished Business Prepare to live with uncertainties and exasperating—even perilous—unfinished business, realizing that not all “problems” have solutions

15. (7) History is Unfinished Business Question: How do we deal with the fact that not all problems have solutions?

16. (8) Campaign Against Monocausality Grasp the complexity of historical causation, respect particularity, and avoid excessively abstract generalizations

17. (8) Campaign Against Monocausality Question: How do we recognize the complexity of why things happen the way they do?

18. (9) History’s Tentative Nature Appreciate the often tentative nature of judgments about the past, and thereby avoid the temptation to seize upon particular “lessons” of history as cures for present ills.

19. (9) History’s Tentative Nature Question: How do we recognize the importance of individual circumstances that lead to decisions?

20. (10) People Who Made a Difference Recognize the importance of individuals who made a difference in history, and the significance of personal character for both good and ill.

21. (10) People who Made a Difference Question: How do individuals make a difference in society?

22. (11) The Unintended & Unexpected Appreciate the force of the nonrational, the irrational, the accidental, in history and human affairs

23. (11) The Unintended & Unexpected Question: How does history not always go as planned?

24. (12) Time and Place are Inseparable Understand the relationship between geography and history as a matrix of time and place, and as context for events

25. (12) Time and Place are Inseparable Question: How are history and geography interlinked?

26. (13) Evaluating Evidence Read widely and critically in order to recognize the difference between fact and conjecture, between evidence and assertion, and thereby to frame useful questions

27. (13) Evaluating Evidence Question: How do we interpret historical events?