1. Instructional Theory Presented by Frank H. Osborne, Ph. D. © 2015 EMSE 3230 Math and Science in Education 1

2. Introduction Two meanings of "Theory" Scientific Theory Scientific Difference between a Law and a Theory: Law: What we observe in nature Theory: Our explanation of (or attempt to explain) some phenomenon that we observe. 2

3. Introduction Two meanings of "Theory" Scientific Theory A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world. –guides scientific inquiry –organizes observations –provides explanations –predict events (provide direction) 3

4. Introduction Two meanings of "Theory" Instructional Theory The statement of the most effective principles on which science instruction is based. –experiences to enhance learning –methods in which knowledge can be structured to enhance learning –sequence in which to present material –process for feedback and evaluation 4

5. Teaching and Learning Jean Piaget recognized four periods or stages of mental development. –Sensory motor intelligence (0 – 2 years). Reflexive, self-centered –Preoperational thought (2 – 7 years). Centration, non-conservation –Concrete Reasoning/Operations (7-11 years) Conservation, reversibility –Formal Reasoning/Operations (11 – 15 years) Each stage is categorized by ability to perform certain mental operations and the inability to perform others. 5

6. Teaching and Learning Jean Piaget suggested that there are four factors that are influential in the progression of the child through these four stages. –Maturation contributes in the form of neurological growth. –Experience with the physical environment so that assimilation and accommodation can occur. –Social interaction, or the interchange of ideas between people, is necessary. –Equilibrium, or self-regulation, which permits the student to consider alternative approaches when the first ones do not solve the problem. 6

7. Teaching and Learning Learning occurs via an individual's interaction with the environment. –The learner assimilates new ideas and information. –New information is accommodated with previously learned information. –Consistency is attained between the individual's cognitive structure and everyday experience. 7

8. Teaching and Learning in Stages Each individual passes through different stages of development but not necessarily at the same time as others. Learning activities need to be developmentally appropriate to the stage that the child is in. In Piaget’s sensory motor period, the child is self-centered but acquires the idea of permanence, that objects exist though the child does not see them. 8

9. Teaching and Learning in Stages In Piaget’s period of preoperational thought, the child is egocentric and cannot take the viewpoint of others. The child supports only the view it has. Such children can focus on only one aspect of the problem. They can begin to pay attention to two aspects of the problem at about age 7. The ability to see that something stays constant while something else changes is called conservation. 9

10. Teaching and Learning in Stages Assume that the graduated cylinder and the beaker contain the same amount of water. This child will say that the cylinder with the taller height has more water in it. Similarly, if a round ball of modeling clay is flattened into a pancake, the child will say that its weight has changed. 10

11. Teaching and Learning in Stages The child in Piaget’s third period, that of concrete operations, is able to pay attention to two aspect of a problem at the same time and can reverse operations mentally, but can apply logic only to real or observational situations. He can see what is, not what could be. The child begins to develop concepts of conservation according to their ease of learning. 11

12. Ages of Development of Conservation Because students at this age respond best to what they can see, learning proceeds more efficiently by having them manipulate concrete objects. 12

13. Teaching and Learning in Stages In the final stage of formal operations the child can deal with hypothetical problems or those that he cannot see. He can test all possibilities and can build a hypothesis. Hypothesis building is not concrete because it applies to all possibilities, not just those that the student can see at the particular time. 13

14. Teaching and Learning Our teaching in elementary school is too verbal and abstract. Children are mostly in the concrete operations stage so we need to relate words to things. That is why use of manipulatives to teach mathematics is essential. That is why the best way to learn science is to do science. The classroom should be able to turn into a math and science lab and provide activities that fit what the children can do. 14

15. Teaching and Learning The classroom should be able to turn into a math and science lab and provide activities that fit what the children can do. Mathematics can best be taught using manipulatives that the children can handle and understand. Science can be best taught by providing opportunities that the children can use to ‘discover’ concepts instead of merely being given information. 15

16. The End 16