1. Bell Ringer – Keep this sheet all class Write down as many observations about behavior of people @ North Country as you can.

2. Objectives Students will be able to: -Understand and interpret correlational data -Complete naturalistic observation - Compile data and form a hypothesis based on data

3. What is the Scientific Method? Do Now: Ask a question based on one of your observations.

4. How do the 5 Goals of Psychology relate to Research Methods? Observation: What do I observe? Description: What are the characteristics of the behavior?  operational definition Prediction: How likely is it that the behavior will occur? Explanation: What causes the behavior? Control: Can I make the behavior happen/ not happen?

5. What are the Three Types of Questions and Which Did I Ask? Descriptive A question describing what exists. (e.g. What percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election?) Relational A question describing the relationships between two or more variables. A question describing the relationships between two or more variables. (e.g. “What proportion of m & f say they would vote for a Dem. or a Rep. candidate in the next presidential election?  gender and voting preference.) Causal A question designed to determine whether one or more variables (i.e. an advertisement) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. (e.g. Public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying “Did the advertisement (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect)?”

6. Scientific Method: Developing Explanations Theories Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest Hypothesis Hypothesis A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested Null hypothesis - no difference Alternative hypothesis – one more prevalent

7. Naturalistic-Observation Method Advantages – Enables researchers to witness the behavior of the people or animals in settings that are not artificial. Disadvantages – Researchers have no control over the setting of the events that occur. Researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats.

8. Laboratory-Observation Methods Advantages – Enables researchers to control certain aspects of the study Disadvantages – Laboratories cannot duplicate real-life environments Participants are observed in a laboratory setting.

9. Survey Method Advantages – Enables the researcher to gather information about large numbers of people (orally/digitally) Disadvantages – People may not be entirely honest in answering questions. – Survey samples are not always representative of the population as a whole People respond to a series of questions about a particular subject.

10. Survey Idea of a Population & Sample A target population is everyone you wish to study A sample is a representative part of the large population A sample is a representative part of the large population – used b/c it is very difficult to survey everyone – Random people selected by chance – Stratified guarantees that all identified subgroups are represented in an amount equal to their numbers in larger population

11. Surveys cont. Does not have to be large to be representative - 1,000 to 1,500 people selected correctly can represent the views of the entire United States. Generalizing Results: when collecting information about a subgroup of the general population; results directly apply to that group only

12. Volunteer Bias Volunteer Bias: people who volunteer for survey are different from those randomly selected – they are more willing to disclose more personal info – they are more interested in research – they have more free time Magazine Surveys: people who answer these survey are not representative of the general population or even readers of magazine

13. Correlation A correlation coefficient (-1 ≥ r ≥ 1) is a statistical measure of relationship. – A positive correlation indicates a direct relationship while a negative correlation indicates an indirect relationship. -

14. Correlations Methods: Indicates how well two variables are related – Does NOT indicate why – CANNOT be used to infer cause-effect relationships – Used for PREDICTING one variable from another How does one behavior relate to the occurrence of another behavior? How does one behavior relate to the occurrence of another behavior? If we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior? If we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior?

15. Determining the Direction of Correlations 1. A study of married couples showed that the longer they had been married the more similar their opinions are on social and political issues. 2. An intelligence test was given to all the children in an orphanage. The results showed that the longer the children had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores. 3. In a study of American cities, it was found that as the number of violent crimes increased, so did the number of stores selling violence-depicting pornography. 4. A college professor found that the more class absences students have, the lower their grades in the course tend to be. 5. A politician running against a candidate who had been in office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had increased steadily during those eight years while the administration had appropriated more and more money to fight crime.

16. 6. It was found that elementary school children who earned high scores on a vocabulary test also tended to earn high scores on a test of physical strength and muscle coordination. 7. The more money a person spends on his or her wardrobe, the higher the salary. 8. The larger the sum of money chemical plant corporations contribute to political campaigns, the fewer the number of citations their plants receive for violating environmental regulations. 9. The more semesters of psychology a student takes in college, the greater his or her reported satisfaction in life ten years after graduation. 10. The earlier the age at which a person starts to smoke, the greater the number of years that it takes for him or her to quit smoking. Determining the Direction of Correlations

17. Answers: 1. Positive 2. Negative 3. Positive 4. Negative 5. Positive 6. Positive 7. Positive 8. Negative 9. Positive 10. Negative

18. “Correlation does not imply Causation” Perhaps the most irresistible thinking error made by both laypeople and professional psychologists is to assume that correlation proves causation. Correlation reveals how closely two things vary together and thus how well one predicts the other. The fact that events are correlated does not mean, however, that one causes the other or while correlation enable prediction, it does not provide explanation.

19. Ex. Correlation ≠ Causation If you observe a correlation between the number of hours students use the computer to study and their grade point averages (with high computer users getting higher grades), you cannot assume that the relationship is causal: that computer use improves grades. In this case, the third variable might be socioeconomic status -- richer students who have greater resources at their disposal tend to both use computers and do better in their grades.

20. Correlation Does Not Equal Causation Y changes due to X. X changes due to Y Z, may be causing changes in both X and Y. As Z changes, X and Y change simultaneously, leading to their correlation. A TV news show reported that women who have a baby after the age of forty are more likely to live to be one hundred than those who do not. Is having a baby at a relatively late childbearing age responsible for prolonged life?

21. - Women who bear children when they are in their forties may tend to be healthier, better off financially, or have other characteristics associated with living longer. 2. Neale and Liebert (1973) provide another striking example--there is a positive correlation between the number of churches in a city and the amount of crime in that city. Does this mean we should shut down some places of worship to help curb crime? Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

22. 3. The more a person weighs, the larger his or her vocabulary. HW: Find three good examples of correlational results being presented as if they implied causality. For each, include the statement made by the news media and identify as many interpretations of the data Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

23. Bell Ringer Share your examples of correlations with a neighbor and from your six examples and choose one that: 1. Infers causality 2. Could have a third variable (z causing x and y to both change)

24. Testing Method Several types of tests, (AIMS & SAT) measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality. Advantages – Enables researchers to gain insight into certain aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior. Disadvantages – Does not always provide a complete or accurate representation of an individual’s true abilities or personalities.

25. Case-Study Method Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups. Advantages – Provides insight into specific cases. Disadvantages May focus on isolated circumstances or events that cannot be replicated. – People interviewed in case studies may distort their past experiences. – May unintentionally encourage people to answer questions a certain way.

26. Longitudinal Method A group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time. Advantages – Enable researchers to see how individuals change over time. Disadvantages – Time-consuming and expensive. – Participants may not be available for the duration of the study. (attrition)

27. Cross-Sectional Method Advantages – Less time- consuming than the longitudinal method for studying changes over time. Disadvantages – Differences between the members of the sample cannot necessarily be attributed to age or development. Researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time.

28. Experimental Method Advantages – Researchers are able to manipulate variables to determine cause and effect. – Laboratory setting enables researcher to monitor and record all stages of the experiment. Disadvantages – Conditions created in laboratory may not accurately reflect the conditions of real life. – Experiments may be subject to volunteer bias, researcher bias, and the placebo effect Researchers administer a treatment, then carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior, if at all. {Cause & Effect}

29. Experimental Method Variables: Measurable factor or condition Independent Variables: factors manipulated to determine its effect Dependent Variable: factor effected (Ex. Warm temperature causes aggression independent variables dependent variables) Placebo: A substance or treatment that has no effect apart from belief in it. Single Blind: participant unaware if they have taken placebo Double Blind: both participant or examiner are unaware of who received placebo

30. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY ASSOCIATION (APA) - A scientific and professional organization of psychologists Code of ethics guidelines was established in 1993 to protect the rights of subjects: all psychology researchers must follow these guidelines: 1. Issue of risk 2. Confidentiality 3. Informed Consent 4. Debriefing 5. Deception

31. Ethical Issues Psychologists follow ethical standards to promote: -The dignity of the individual, -Foster human welfare, & -Maintain scientific integrity. Prevents scientists from undertaking research or treatment that will be harmful to human participants.

32. Risk & Confidentiality ISSUE OF RISK: No physical or psychological harm done to subjects. RIGHT TO PRIVACY: Studies must be conducted in complete confidentiality. Names omitted from data of these studies; Reported in group form rather than as responses from individuals Subjects more likely to disclose true information and feelings

33. Informed Consent & Debriefing INFORMED CONSENT: - People agree to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview. - Given the choice of whether or not to participate. - Subject must know the hypothesis being tested, and nature and implication of these results for the science of psychology. DEBRIEFING: Avoid misunderstandings, reduces anxieties and helps to maintain subjects dignity

34. Deception Should psychologists lie to their subjects? Ψ Not always possible to tell the whole truth about a study. Examples: Stanley Milgram, 1963 Stanley MilgramStanley Milgram How far will people obey authority figure who orders them to violate their own ethical code? Only under specific conditions: Ψ Belief that the benefit outweigh its potential harm Ψ The subject might have be willing to participate if they had understood its benefits Ψ Must receive an explanation of the study after it occurred

35. Animal Research ΨShould animals be used in research? Ψ7 or 8 percent of psychological studies are done on animals. Ψ95% of the animals are Norwegian white rodents, which is bred specifically for research purposes and is relatively cheap and healthy. Ψ Other animals used are pigeons, cats, monkeys, apes and other.

36. Harm of Animals ΨMost animals are not harmed. ΨHowever, physical and psychological harm such as experiments in which infant monkeys are reared apart from their mothers and as a consequence develop abnormal behavior. ΨSome studies require the animal’s death (never vivisection) ΨExample: when rats brought up in deprived or enrich environments are sacrificed so that their brains can be examined for any effects. Monkey Torture Monkey Torture

37. WHY ANIMALS? - Similar Enough to Generalize Biology and Behavior - Different enough to avoid empathy Ψ Speciesism is the assigning of different values or rights to beings on the basis of their species membership.

38. SHOULD THERE BE A BAN ON ANIMAL RESEARCH? BENEFITS BENEFITS Ψ Treating enuresis (bed wetting); Ψ Fecal incontinence (loss of bowel control); Ψ Improve classroom learning; Ψ Teach retarded children to communicate; Ψ Develop a device to correct curvature of the spine; Ψ Devise behavioral therapies for treating emotional problems and substance abuse; Ψ Combat life-threatening malnutrition caused by chronic vomiting in infants… CONTROVERSIAL Ψ Medical use of animal; Ψ Drug testing; Ψ Surgical procedures; Ψ Bypass surgery, pacemakers, heart transplants, & polio vaccines; Ψ Eye make-up.