1. Using Historical Documents to Reconstruct Climate Cameron Douglas Craig Indiana State University Climate Laboratory Department of Geography, Geology, and Anthropology Indiana State University Terre Haute, Indiana

2. Agenda Historical Documents The Acquisition of Sources Interpreting the Data Critical Reconstruction Methodological Problems Conclusion

3. Historical Documents Primary Sources –First Hand Accounts –Unedited and Unpublished Examples of Primary Sources –Ship Logs –Military Logs –Personal Journals and Diaries –Newspapers Collection No. SC592. IHS.

4. Historical Documents Personal Journals and Diaries –Historical preservation of daily events People wanted to remember what they did and who they met day to day. Entertaining –Time-travel to the past Financial records Personal thoughts Lifestyles Weather conditions Samuel Shirk Collection, 1852. IHS.

5. Historical Documents Why Record the Weather? –Complete description a full picture of daily events: “What was it like when…” –Agricultural Planting season with frost dates recorded Yield from the previous years harvest (insight into the amount of precipitation)

6. Historical Documents What Weather Conditions were Recorded? –Temperature Relative terms due to the lack of thermometers Occasional collections with actual temperatures –Sky conditions Cloud cover –Precipitation type Rain Snow Collection No. SC717 F3. IHS.

8. The Acquisition of Sources What are Archival Institutions? –Depository of historical documents and artifacts –Non-circulation library Local Archival Institutions –Indiana Historical Society, William H. Smith Memorial Library, Indianapolis, Indiana –Indiana State Library, Indianapolis, Indiana

9. Historiography Words and Their Meaning –Past versus present “Hot” today would not necessarily mean the same then. Gender Differences –Male versus female observers Males had to provide for the family. Females were in charge of the household functions.

10. Historiography Historical Documents –People Traveled Weather observations in nearby cities can be used to reconstruct data. –Concerns: Cross-examination of other stationary observers must be implemented. Limit of distance from Indiana must also be implemented. –St. Louis –Cincinnati –Chicago

11. Historiography Historical Documents Continued –Eye of the Beholder Catastrophic events sometimes overstated and must be cross-examined with other witnesses. –Illness Some observers did not record observations due to illness. –Look to other observers to fill in gaps. –Gaps between observers Statistical methods employed by Climatologists can fill in the gaps accurately.

12. Historiography Cross-Examination –Important to accurately reconstruct temperature scheme. Newspapers Witness to witness

13. Interpreting the Data The Climatologist as Detective –Using descriptions other than weather observations. 11-22-1857: Cloudy & cool-snow on ground-snowed in evening (28-32) 11-23-1857: Fine day & cool 11-24-1857: Cloudy-went to town in sleigh* 11-25-1857: Clear-went hunting in sleigh* 11-26-1857: Clear & warm 11-27-1857: Clear & warm-snow off (33-40)

14. Critical Reconstruction Creating a Temperature Scheme –Rank-ordered word scales (Baron, 1992) Relative Temperatures put into a numerical index: –+14 (very hottest) –-14 (very coldest) –0 (considered normal) –A rank-ordered word scale is created for each witness. –Critical reconstruction ties all witnesses together to create the final product.

15. IndexRelative Term 9Hottest 8Excessively Hot 7Very Hot 6Hot 5Warmer 4Some Warmer 3Little Warmer 2Warm 1Moderate 0Pleasant (Normal) Cool -2Some Cooler -3Cooler -4Little Chilly -5Very Chilly -6Cold -7Quite Cold -8Some Colder (Frozen/Freezing) -9Colder (Heavy Frost) -10Tolerable Cold -11Very Cold -12Coldest

17. ObserverPeriod Covered Type of Observation George M. Beeler1864Continuous weather observations in qualitative form. Churchman Table1872-1877Contains only low temperatures for winter months. Rufus Haymond, M.D.1845-1871Scattered observations. Inconsistent. Elisha King1854-1862Continuous weather observations in qualitative form; many in great detail. William Scudder, Jr.1856-1859Continuous weather observations in qualitative form; not in great detail. Samuel Shirk1852 and 1855Two excellent diaries with actual temperatures throughout each.

18. DateElisha KingSamuel Shirk 1/25/1855Snowing AM/Quit Snowing/Warmer Snowing/20° F/2 inches deep—the most this winter 2/3/1855The coldest day yet. Clear nearly all day. Clear—0° F Coldest day. 2/27/1855Cold and ClearClear thermometer a shade above zero 4/17/1855Warm—the warmestHazy 86° F 7/15/1855Very hot and sultryClear 98° F 7/17/1855The hottest and clearClear 94° F

24. Conclusion Exercise –What is a “relative” term? –Describe the current weather. Relative Temperature Sky Conditions Personal Observational Remarks –Compare your results Which of the descriptions do you agree with the most? –Problems……………

25. Climate and Art John E. Oliver Cameron D. Craig Department of Geography, Geology, and Anthropology Indiana State University Terre Haute, Indiana