1. Week 1 Introduction to Psychology

2. Chapter 1 Overview Exploring psychology’s roots Exploring psychology’s roots Schools of thought in psychology Schools of thought in psychology Descriptive research methods Descriptive research methods The experimental method The experimental method Ethics in psychological research Ethics in psychological research Thinking about theories and research Thinking about theories and research Psychologists at work Psychologists at work

3. What are psychological perspectives, and how are they related to an eclectic position? Psychological perspectives are general points of view used for explaining people’s behavior and thinking Psychological perspectives are general points of view used for explaining people’s behavior and thinking Many psychologists take an eclectic position, using a combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior Many psychologists take an eclectic position, using a combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior

4. Descriptive Research Methods Methods that yield descriptions of behavior Methods that yield descriptions of behavior These methods include These methods include –Naturalistic and laboratory observation –Case study –Survey research –The correlational method

5. How do psychological researchers use naturalistic and laboratory observation? Naturalistic observation Naturalistic observation –Observation of behavior in its natural setting, without attempting to influence it Laboratory observation Laboratory observation –Studying behavior in a laboratory setting –This allows more control and more precise measurement of responses

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the case study? Case study Case study –Studying a single individual or small number of persons in depth Advantage Advantage –Appropriate for studying rare psychological disorders or brain damage Disadvantages Disadvantages –Cannot identify the cause of behavior –Potential for bias –Results can lack generalizability

7. How do researchers ensure that survey results are useful? Survey research Survey research –Uses interviews and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people –Instead of studying the whole population, researchers survey a sample To be useful, surveys must involve a representative sample To be useful, surveys must involve a representative sample –A sample that mirrors the population of interest

8. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method? Correlational method Correlational method –Used to establish the degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors Strengths Strengths –When the correlation between two variables is known, information about one variable can be used to predict the other Weakness Weakness –A correlation cannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other

9. The Experimental Method The research method used to determine the causes of behavior

10. Why do researchers use experiments to test hypotheses about cause-effect relationships? The experimental method is the only research method that can identify cause-effect relationships

11. How do independent and dependent variables differ? Independent variable – –A factor or condition that is deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition Dependent variable – –A factor or condition that is measured at the end of an experiment

12. Why are experimental and control groups necessary? Experimental group Experimental group –The group that is exposed to the independent variable Control group Control group –A group that is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not given the treatment Comparing experimental and control groups allows researchers to judge the effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally Comparing experimental and control groups allows researchers to judge the effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally

13. What kinds of factors introduce bias into experimental studies? Confounding variables Confounding variables –Factors other than the independent variable that can affect the results Selection bias Selection bias –Assignment to groups in a way that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experiment –Can be controlled by random assignment

14. What kinds of factors introduce bias into experimental studies? Placebo effect Placebo effect –Response to a treatment caused by a person’s expectations, not the treatment itself Experimenter bias Experimenter bias –Occurs when the researcher’s expectations influence the experiment’s results These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique –In which neither the experimenter nor participants know who is in the experimental and control groups

15. What are the limitations of the experimental method? Experiments are often conducted in unnatural settings, limiting the generalizability of the results Experiments are often conducted in unnatural settings, limiting the generalizability of the results This method may also be unethical or impossible to use for some research This method may also be unethical or impossible to use for some research

16. Ethics in Psychological Research Researchers are ethically obligated to protect the rights of all study participants Researchers are ethically obligated to protect the rights of all study participants

17. What ethical rules must researchers follow when humans are involved in studies? Legality Legality –Research must conform to applicable laws Institutional Approval Institutional Approval –Must be approved by all institutions involved in a study Informed Consent Informed Consent –Participants must be informed of the purpose of a study and any potential harm Deception Deception –Only used when necessary –If deceived, participants must be debriefed

18. What ethical rules must researchers follow when humans are involved in studies? Clients, patients, students, and subordinates Clients, patients, students, and subordinates –Must not be negatively affected by participating Payment for participation Payment for participation –Is ethical –But participants must be fully informed about what is expected Publication Publication –Researchers must report findings in an appropriate forum, and make their data available to others for verification

19. Why are animals used in research? Animals provide a simpler model for studying similar processes in humans Animals provide a simpler model for studying similar processes in humans Researchers can exercise more control over animals and use a wider range of medical and other manipulations Researchers can exercise more control over animals and use a wider range of medical and other manipulations But, ethical guidelines must be followed But, ethical guidelines must be followed –Legality –Supervision by experienced personnel –Minimization of discomfort

20. Thinking about Theories and Research Psychologists evaluate theories in terms of their usefulness Psychologists evaluate theories in terms of their usefulness Not whether they are strictly “true” or “false” Not whether they are strictly “true” or “false”

21. How do psychologists compare theories? Theories are compared in terms of their usefulness Theories are compared in terms of their usefulness Useful theories generate testable hypotheses and practical solutions to problems Useful theories generate testable hypotheses and practical solutions to problems Theories with heuristic value are useful for stimulating research, even if they have flaws Theories with heuristic value are useful for stimulating research, even if they have flaws

22. How can critical thinking be used to interpret media reports of psychological research? Critical thinking involves objectively evaluating claims and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from evidence Critical thinking involves objectively evaluating claims and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from evidence –It includes independent thinking, suspension of judgment, and willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments Critical thinking can be used to evaluate media reports Critical thinking can be used to evaluate media reports –Such as an alleged cause-effect link between TV watching and ADHD that was widely reported in the media Which was based on correlational research Which was based on correlational research

23. What factors limit the generalizability of a study? Generalizability Generalizability –The degree to which a study’s findings can be applied to the general population A study’s generalizability is limited when the characteristics of the participants do not reflect those of the whole population A study’s generalizability is limited when the characteristics of the participants do not reflect those of the whole population

24. Psychologists at Work Psychologists specialize in a number of different areas Psychologists specialize in a number of different areas

25. Who are some of the specialists working within psychology? Clinical psychologists Clinical psychologists –Specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders, such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia Counseling psychologists Counseling psychologists –Help people who have adjustment problems (marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe Physiological, or biological, psychologists Physiological, or biological, psychologists –Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior Experimental psychologists Experimental psychologists –Conduct experiments in most areas of psychology, including learning, memory, and perception

26. Who are some of the specialists working within psychology? Developmental psychologists Developmental psychologists –Study how people grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan Educational psychologists Educational psychologists –Specialize in the study of teaching and learning Social psychologists Social psychologists –Investigate how individuals feel, think, and behave in social settings Industrial/organizational psychologists Industrial/organizational psychologists –Study the relationship between people and their work environments