1. Technical Module : Pointers #1 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Technical Module : Pointers In this module we will cover Pointers to primitives and objects Argument passing using pointers Memory allocation using new Memory freeing using delete An important use of a destructor You will probably be confused by the end of this. Particularly on the relation between pointers and references

2. Technical Module : Pointers #2 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Aims of this module In this module we teach you about the use of pointers. It will at first seem that pointers are the same as references, just more obtuse to use. In many cases this is true, but there are situations where you need to use pointers. In this module we first explain pointers and then show them in use for dynamic memory allocation.

3. Technical Module : Pointers #3 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 1 Pointers Pointers were invented as part of C long before references were ever invented in C++ Pointers, as the name suggests, allow you to indirectly refer to a primitive or object. References are in many cases a simpler and more obvious way to indirectly refer to a primitive or object. Therefore in many situations you no longer need pointers where they would have been used in C. However pointers pervade C++ programs, so we must learn about them. [ You might like to note that pointers have been abolished in Java. Only "references" exist, but confusingly they are similar to but not the same as references in C++. ]

4. Technical Module : Pointers #4 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 In its simplest form a pointer is declared and used like this // Declare a pointer int* ptrToInt ; // Use a pointer *ptrToInt = 3 ; ptrToInt is NOT an integer It is a thing which can POINT to an integer ptrToInt is "dereferenced" using the * operator. This line says: "set the thing which ptrToInt points to to be 3"

5. Technical Module : Pointers #5 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Now we get confusing: here is how you set a pointer to point to an existing variable: // Declare a pointer int count = 5 ; int* ptrToInt ; // Set pointer to point to count ptrToInt &count ; This line says: "set ptrToInt points to be the address of count" It is the & operator which "takes the address of" count Annoyingly and very confusingly, this use of & has absolutely nothing to do with the use of & in the context of references ! You WILL BE confused !

6. Technical Module : Pointers #6 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Pictorial examples: Pointer to an integer: *&$$%^ %$£$^^ int a ; a is an integer - space has been allocated and probably contains garbage It works the other way around, i.e. int b ; b = *pa ; int* pa ; pa is a pointer to an integer, but doesn’t point to anything sensible yet *&$$%^ %$£$^^ pa = &a ; pa now points to a, remember & means “take address of”. 10 *pa = 10 ; This places value 10 in the thing pointed to

7. Technical Module : Pointers #7 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 2 Pointers to objects In the same way (with one minor additional complication) one may use pointers to objects like this: // Make a Thing object Thing wombat ; // Make a pointer to a Thing Thing* ptrToAThing ; // Now set the pointer to point at wombat ptrToAthing = &wombat ; Wombat

8. Technical Module : Pointers #8 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 The minor complication is that when you have a pointer to an object you normally use the -> operator to invoke its methods Instead of this (which works fine) // make a pointer to a thing Thing* ptrToAThing ; //.... set it to point at some sensible Thing object... // Now use the printContents method in an "obvious" fashion (*ptrToAthing).printContents() you normally do this: // make a pointer to a thing Thing* ptrToAThing ; //.... set it to point at some sensible Thing object... // Now use the printContents method using -> operator ptrToAthing->printContents()

9. Technical Module : Pointers #9 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 At this points students normally ask why ? what is the point of pointers ? what do they do that references dont do ? As we said earleir, in many cases the answer is nothing because pointers were invented in C before C++ references. If we tried to cover every way of using pointers in abstact examples now it would undoubtedly confuse you more than the good it would do. (you would be unique if this were not the case !) We therefore cover only two very common uses now: argument passing dynamic memory allocation and defer any other use of pointers to well defined situations where they might arise, and where hopefuly the purpose of use wouldbe clear.

10. Technical Module : Pointers #10 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Before C++ references were invented, pointers HAD to be used in C to pass arguments which you wanted to change. You can still do this in C++ like this: This passes the address of count into to doSomething int count ; doSomething( &count ) ; count This makes an area in memory labeled as count doSomething then uses the pointer to work on the original 3 Using pointers to pass primitive arguments

11. Technical Module : Pointers #11 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Inside the function doSomething you have to make the arguments match this void doSomething( int* pcount ) { // accessing the integer pointed // to by pcount *pcount = *pcount + 1 ; … rest of code } This is how you tell the function that it is receiving a pointer to the argument, I.e. a “pointer to an integer” rather than “an integer itself” This is how you access the thing pointed to

12. Technical Module : Pointers #12 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 This is identical to passing primitives (it can be used instead of passing a reference, but there is generally no point in doing so) This passes the address of t into to doSomething Thing t ; doSomething( &t ) ; t This makes an area in memory labeled as t doSomething then uses the pointer to work on the original 4 Using pointers to pass objects

13. Technical Module : Pointers #13 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 If you are passing a user defined data type you probably want to use its methods. You normally do that like this: void doSomething( Thing* ptr ) { // accessing a method // through the pointer ptr->initialise( 10.) ;... rest of code } // Declare user defined data type Thing t ; // Call a function to change it: doSomething( & t ) ; This is how you access methods of the thing pointed to.

14. Technical Module : Pointers #14 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 So far the only way we have ever created instances of data types is by declaring them in a piece of code An alternative in C++ to explicitly create things in a free area of memory using new 5 Memory allocation using "new"

15. Technical Module : Pointers #15 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 /* Example of use of new */ ThreeVector* vec ; vec = new ThreeVector ; vec is declared as a pointer to a ThreeVector (but at this stage it doesnt point to anything - it is un- initialised). At this point an area of memory is carved off and protected. vec is then set to point to it Memory for a ThreeVector Think of new as a function which returns a pointer to a new instance of the data type specified after it

16. Technical Module : Pointers #16 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 As an example of where you might use pointers with new, here is a a puzzle for the whiteboard Which of the following works/doesn’t work ? Explain why ?

17. Technical Module : Pointers #17 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Code A main() { ThreeVector vec ; vec = gimmeAVector( ) ; dump( vec ) ; } // Code A ThreeVector gimmeAVector() { ThreeVector v ; return v ; }

18. Technical Module : Pointers #18 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Code B main() { ThreeVector* pvec ; pvec = gimmeAVector( ) ; dump2( pvec ) ; } // Code B ThreeVector* gimmeAVector() { ThreeVector* pv ; return pv ; }

19. Technical Module : Pointers #19 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Code C main() { ThreeVector* pvec ; pvec = gimmeAVector( ) ; dump( pvec ) ; } // Code C ThreeVector* gimmeAVector() { ThreeVector v ; return &v ; }

20. Technical Module : Pointers #20 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Code D main() { ThreeVector* pvec ; pvec = gimmeAVector( ) ; dump( pvec ) ; } // Code D ThreeVector* gimmeAVector() { ThreeVector* pv ; pv = new ThreeVector ; return pv ; }

21. Technical Module : Pointers #21 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Code D ThreeVector* gimmeAVector() { ThreeVector* pv ; pv = new ThreeVector ; return pv ; } Very typically pointers are used like this, i.e. -when you want to create something long lived inside a function - when you want to return this thing to the caller without it going out of scope when you terminate

22. Technical Module : Pointers #22 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Example of use of new and delete // in a function void myFunction { ThreeVector* pvec ; pvec = new ThreeVector ;.... delete pvec ; return; } Very important ! When you have finished with memory you must delete it in order to give the memory back to the system Memory for a ThreeVector 6 Memory de-allocation using "delete"

23. Technical Module : Pointers #23 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // Example of use of new and delete // in a function void myFunction { ThreeVector* pvec ; pvec = new ThreeVector ;.... // forgot to delete( pvec ) ; return; } If you fail to do this you will cause a "memory leak" The computer memory gets filled up with orphaned memory, and eventually falls over. Memory for a ThreeVector

24. Technical Module : Pointers #24 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 The function returns, and the pointer goes out of scope. But the memory remains allocated with nothing pointing to it ! Memory for a ThreeVector

25. Technical Module : Pointers #25 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 The most common situation where a memory leak occurs arises when you allocate some memory using new within an object, then forget to delete it before the the object gets destroyed 7 An important use of the destructor

26. Technical Module : Pointers #26 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Here is an example of the sort of problem which can arise. // The.h file for a badly written class class BadClass { private: Thing* ptr ; public: BadClass( ) ; } // The.cc file with constructor BadClass::BadClass( ) { ptr = new Thing ; }

27. Technical Module : Pointers #27 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 When you make a BadClass, then (i) memory for a BadClass is allocated (ii) the BadClass constructor is called which uses new to allocate memory for a Thing, and sets the pointer to it // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BadClass b ;... use it... return ; } BadClass

28. Technical Module : Pointers #28 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 When you make a BadClass, then (i) memory for a BadClass is allocated (ii) the BadClass constructor is called which uses new to allocate memory for a Thing, and sets the pointer to it Thing // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BadClass b ;... use it... return ; } BadClass

29. Technical Module : Pointers #29 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Thing // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BadClass b ;... use it... return ; } BadClass When a BadClass object goes out of scope, then it gets destroyed, but this only deletes the BadClass itself The Thing is left hanging around with nothing pointing to it This is a MEMORY LEAK

30. Technical Module : Pointers #30 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Thing // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BadClass b ;... use it... return ; } When a BadClass object goes out of scope, then it gets destroyed, but this only deletes the BadClass itself The Thing is left hanging around with nothing pointing to it This is a MEMORY LEAK

31. Technical Module : Pointers #31 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 You should instead supply a destructor ~BetterClass( ) This destructor gets called immediately before a BetterClass object gets destroyed // The.h file for // A beter written class class BetterClass { private: Thing* ptr ; public: BetterClass( ) ; ~BetterClass( ) ; } // In the.cc file BetterClass::~BetterClass( ) { delete ptr ; } It deletes the Thing explicitly before the BetterClass object goes out of existence

32. Technical Module : Pointers #32 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 When you make a BetterClass, then (i) memory for a BetterClass is allocated (ii) the BetterClass constructor is called which uses new to allocate memory for a Thing, and sets the pointer to it // some piece of code which makes a // BetterClass instance void mycode() { BetterClass b;... use it... return ; } Better Class

33. Technical Module : Pointers #33 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 When you make a BetterClass, then (i) memory for a BetterClass is allocated (ii) the BetterClass constructor is called which uses new to allocate memory for a Thing, and sets the pointer to it Thing // some piece of code which makes a // BetterClass instance void mycode() { BetterClass b;... use it... return ; } Better Class

34. Technical Module : Pointers #34 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Thing // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BetterClass b ;... use it... return ; } Better Class When a BetterClass object goes out of scope, (i) the destructor is called first (ii) then it gets destroyed

35. Technical Module : Pointers #35 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BetterClass b ;... use it... return ; } Better Class When a BetterClass object goes out of scope, (i) the destructor is called first (ii) then it gets destroyed

36. Technical Module : Pointers #36 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // some piece of code which makes a // BadClass instance void mycode() { BetterClass b ;... use it... return ; } When a BetterClass object goes out of scope, (i) the destructor is called first (ii) then it gets destroyed

37. Technical Module : Pointers #37 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Be careful You only need to do this if your class is the only thing which points to some memory from inside itself. You don’t need to do this is you are simply storing a pointer to something passed into you from outside via a method. For in such a case the outside environment is by definition keeping track of the memory in question. We repeat from an earlier module: You rarely need a destructor - although it is considered good practice to always provide one even if it does nothing. However always consider it if you have used the new(..) operator inside your class Memory leaks are one pf the biggest problems of C++ (JAVA for instance does not have this problem)

38. Technical Module : Pointers #38 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 8 this-> C++ provides a special pointer Sometimes an object has need to refer to itself. Examples are: to pass itself to a function it is calling to pass a pointer to itself to a function to return a copy of itself, or a pointer to itself. C++ provides a special inbuilt pointer in every object: this-> this-> is actually very simple once you have grasped it.

39. Technical Module : Pointers #39 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 // To explicitly refer to yourself inside a method ThreeVector::magnitude( ) { float magsq = this->x * this->x + this->y * this->y + this->z * this->z ; return sqrt( magsq ) ; } Look at these two bits of code: // To explicitly refer to yourself inside a method ThreeVector::magnitude( ) { float magsq = x * x + y * y + z * z ; return sqrt( magsq ) ; } These bits of code are Identical if you dont put the this-> in then the compiler does it for you !

40. Technical Module : Pointers #40 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Summary of Module : Pointers In this module we have covered the following topics. Pointers to primitive in-build types * to de-reference a pointer & to take the address of Pointers to objects The same as for in-built types In addition the -> operator for invoking methods

41. Technical Module : Pointers #41 2000/01Scientific Computing in OOCourse code 3C59 Use of Pointers to pass arguments A (not recommended) alternatice to references Historical as pointers existed before references Use of new and delete Dynamic allocation of memory Returns a pointer to the allocated memory You are responsible for keeping hold of the pointer you must delete the allocation when finished. Important use for destructors Destructors should delete any memory which an object allocates with new UNLESS responsibility for the pointer has been passed to some other object. this->