1. How do we know what works? Robert Coe ResearchEd, London, 5 Sept 2015

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3. ∂ How do we know what works?  Progress in evidence-based education  Defining ‘what works’  The case for RCTs  Some standard objections  When ‘what works’ doesn’t work  Practical implications 3

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5. ∂ How far have we come? 1999  Very few UK education researchers who had done RCTs  Dominant view: you can’t (or shouldn’t) do RCTs in education  Very limited policy interest in robust evaluation 2015  Growing, sustainable body of UK researchers with education RCT expertise  EEF funding changed those views  Policy interest excellent in parts 5

6. ∂ To claim something ‘works’  Is there a choice between two (or more) plausible options? –Well-defined (inc how to implement) –Repeatable, generalisable, transferable –Feasible, acceptable, equipoise  Can we agree what outcome(s) are important? –Value judgements resolved or explicit –Valid measurement process  Is there rigorous systematic evidence to support one choice? –Systematic review –Overall average difference & ‘moderators’ 6

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8. ∂ In a ‘research-based’ profession: Professionals would, for some decisions they need to take, be able to access and understand high- quality evidence that particular courses of action would be likely to lead to better outcomes than others. Coe 2015 8 Professionals would, for the majority of decisions they need to take, be able to find and access credible research studies that provided evidence that particular courses of action that would, implemented as directed, be substantially more likely to lead to better outcomes than others. Wiliam (2014)

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10. ∂ From Corder et al (2015) International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity  Appropriately cautious claims: –“An extra hour of screen time was associated with 9.3(−14·3,-4·3) fewer [GCSE] points” –“it would be impossible to tell whether reductions in screen time caused an increase in academic performance without a randomised controlled trial”  But also some implicit causal claims –“Screen time was associated with lower academic performance, suggesting that strategies to limit screen behaviours among adolescents may benefit academic performance” 10

11. ∂ Media quotes  But even if pupils spent more time studying, more time spent watching TV or online, still harmed their results, the analysis suggested.  "We believe that programmes aimed at reducing screen time could have important benefits for teenagers' exam grades, as well as their health," said Dr Van Sluijs  “We found that TV viewing, computer games and internet use were detrimental to academic performance” 11

12. ∂ Is screen time the cause of poorer GCSEs?  A statistical association can be evidence for causal relationship –if other explanations for the relationship have been systematically generated, tested and discredited –Eg smoking and cancer  But even high correlations, sophisticated models and ‘strong’ controls do not guarantee this –Coe (2009) “What appeared to the original researchers to be substantial and unequivocal causal effects were reduced to tiny and uncertain differences when the effects of plausible unobserved differences were taken into account.”Coe (2009)  In this study –No control for any prior cognitive measure –Weak control for SES (IMD from LSOAs) –Many obvious alternative explanations 12

13. ∂ Is screen time the cause of poorer GCSEs?  It is a meaningless question: –What are the well-defined, feasible, repeatable options for action?  A question you could answer: –Does intervention X to reduce the time 14-year- olds spend on non-educational screen time lead to increases in their GCSEs?  Related questions –Does X actually reduce screen time? –What support factors are required for it to work? –Does it work more/less with some groups? 13

14. Is the RCT a gold standard? 14

15. ∂ Claim: If you do A, it will improve B Evidence: We did A and it improved B 1.Would B have improved anyway? (counterfactual) 2.Was it really A? (attribution) 3.Did B really improve? (interpretation) 4.Will it work again for me? (generalisation)

16. ∂ 1. Would B have improved anyway? (counterfactual)  Was there an equivalent, randomly allocated comparison group? –Randomisation done properly? –Beware attrition  Was there a comparison group, equivalent on observed measures? –Quality of the measures? –Quantity of the measures (inc repeated measures)? –Unobserved differences (eg enthusiasm, choice)?  Was there a non-equivalent comparison group? –Select an overlapping subset (propensity score matching) –Statistical ‘control’ is problematic  If no direct comparison: impossible to interpret

17. ∂ 2. Was it really A? (attribution)  Could the process of being observed or involved in an experiment have caused it (reactivity/Hawthorne effects)?  Could the involvement of the researcher or developer be a factor?  Contamination: what did control group do?  Did they actually do A (faithfully)?  Did other things change?

18. ∂ 3. Did B really improve? (interpretation)  Was the measure of B adequate? –Validity of measure (biased, unreliable, misinterpreted) –Too narrow/broad –Ceiling/floor effects –Un-blinded judgements  Was the ‘post-test’ timing too soon/late?  Any attrition? (missing data, lost persons, units)  Could it have been just chance? (statistical significance)  Was the reporting comprehensive and unbiased? –data dredging –selective reporting –publication bias

19. ∂ 4. Will it work again for me? (generalisation)  Representativeness –Context (including support factors) –Population (achieved, not just intended)  Intervention not specified or replicable  Will it still work at a large scale?

20. ∂ Claim: If you do A, it will improve B Evidence: We did A and it improved B 1.Would B have improved anyway? (counterfactual) 2.Was it really A? (attribution) 3.Did B really improve? (interpretation) 4.Will it work again for me? (generalisation)  Does RCT help?

21. ∂ Some standard objections to RCTs  Causation –Social world is too complex / Humans are free agents  Values –Positivism requires objective, value-free stance  Generalisation –Every context is unique  Too hard –Problems with RCTs: clustering, power, file-drawer, wrong questions, moderators, wrong outcomes, etc  Not my thing 21

22. When ‘what works’ doesn’t work … 22

23. ∂ What should have worked  Durham Shared Maths (EEF)  California class size (Cartwright & Hardie, 2012 )  Scale-up (Slavin & Smith 2008)  AfL 23

24. ∂ What should you do?  Don’t ignore the evidence just because it is imperfect: understand the limitations and help to improve it  Simple, superficial knowledge of research evidence may not improve decision making: deep, integrated understanding is required  Routinely monitor the effectiveness of your practice  Evaluate the impact of any changes you make 24 See @LeadingLearner ‘Four Aces’ from rEdScot: Experience, Data, Feedback, Research