2. Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology

3. Phonetics ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop. ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.

4. Three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers ’ point of view, “ how speakers produce speech sounds ” Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers ’ point of view, “ how speakers produce speech sounds ” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers ’ point of view, “ how sounds are perceived ” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers ’ point of view, “ how sounds are perceived ” Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.

5. Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.

6. The diagram of speech organs 1. L ips 2. T eeth 3. T eeth ridge(齿龈） (alveolar) 4. H ard palate（硬腭） 5. S oft palate (velum) 6. U vula（小舌） 7. T ip of tongue 8. B lade of tongue（舌叶） 9. B ack of tongue(舌后) 10. V ocal cords(声带) 11. P haryngeal cavity(咽腔） 12. N asal cavity （鼻腔）

7. Orthographic representation of speech sounds ---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ] Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ] Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]

8. Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: Voicing---- voiced & voiceless Voicing---- voiced & voiceless Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated

9. Classification of English speech sounds ---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Vowels Consonants Consonants Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed. Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.

10. The Table of Phonetic Transcription in English

11. Classification of consonants ---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulation The manner of articulation The place of articulation The place of articulation

12. The manner of articulation stops/plosives: stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]; fricatives: fricatives: [ f ], [ f ], [v], [s], [z], [ W ], [ W ], [ T ], [ T ], [ F ], [ F ], [ V ], [ V ], [h]; affricates: affricates: [ tF ], [ tF ], [ dV ]; liquids: liquids: [l](lateral), [ r ]; nasals: nasals: [ m ], [ m ], [ n ], [ n ], [ N ]; glides/semivowels: glides/semivowels: [w], [ j ].

13. The place of articulation bilabial: bilabial: [p], [b], [ m ], [ m ], [w]; labiodental: labiodental: [ f ], [v]; dental: dental: [ W ], [ W ], [ T ]; alveolar: alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]; palatal: palatal: [ F ], [ F ], [ V ], [ V ], [ tF ], [ tF ], [ dV ], [ dV ], [ j ]; velar: velar: [k], [g], [ N ]; glottal: glottal: [h].

14. The place of articulation 1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental; 3. Dental 3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar; 5. Palatoalveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.

15. The description of English consonants English consonants

16. Cardinal vowel a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.

17. Classification of vowels ---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories: ---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Diphthongs or gliding vowels Diphthongs or gliding vowels

18. English consonants The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: [p] voiceless bilabial stop [p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative

19. Monophthongs or pure/single vowels ----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front vowels: [ I: ], [ I ], [ e ], [ Z ], [ A ], [ B ] ; front vowels: [ I: ], [ I ], [ e ], [ Z ], [ A ], [ B ] ; central vowels: [ E: ], [ E ], [ Q ]; central vowels: [ E: ], [ E ], [ Q ]; back vowels: [ u: ], [ u ], [ C: ], [ C ], [ B: ]. back vowels: [ u: ], [ u ], [ C: ], [ C ], [ B: ].

20. According to the openness of the mouth Close: [I:], [I], [u:], [u]. Semi-close: [e], [E:]; Semi-open: [E], [C]; Open: [A], [B], [C], [B:], [Q];

21. The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:

22. According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding rounded: [u:], [u], [C:], [C]; unrounded: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B], [E:], [E], [Q], [B:].

23. According to the length of the vowels long: [ I: ], [ E: ], [ u: ], [ C: ], [ B: ] long: [ I: ], [ E: ], [ u: ], [ C: ], [ B: ] short: [ I ], [ e ], [ Z ], [ A ], [ E ], [ Q ], [ B ], [ u ], [ C ]. short: [ I ], [ e ], [ Z ], [ A ], [ E ], [ Q ], [ B ], [ u ], [ C ].

24. Monophthong 纯元音或单元音 vs. vowel glides. 元音音渡 Languages Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. The The former are known as pure pure or monophthong vowels vowels and the latter, vowel glides.

25. diphthongs 双元音 If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words as way [we ɪ ], tide [ta ɪ d], how [ha ʊ ], toy [t ɔɪ ], and toe [tə ʊ ]. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words as way [we ɪ ], tide [ta ɪ d], how [ha ʊ ], toy [t ɔɪ ], and toe [tə ʊ ].

26. Triphthong 三重元音 : A double movement produces a triphthong, which is ‘a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption’. A double movement produces a triphthong, which is ‘a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption’. They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa [ə], found in English words like wire [wa ɪ ə] and tower [ta ʊ ə]. They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa [ə], found in English words like wire [wa ɪ ə] and tower [ta ʊ ə].

27. vowels vowels vowels Monophthongs semi-vowel vowel glides Monophthongs semi-vowel vowel glides Diphthongs triphthongs Diphthongs triphthongs

28. Features of Vowels Functionally, vowels are the basis of syllables. Functionally, vowels are the basis of syllables. Physically, vowels are musical. Physically, vowels are musical. Articulatorily, for vowels, airstream is not obstructed, and speech organs are tense. Articulatorily, for vowels, airstream is not obstructed, and speech organs are tense.

29. Phonology Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. Speech is one of human activities used for convey meaning

30. 2.3 Phonology Phonephonetic unit 1.not distinctive of meaning2.physical as heard or produced3.marked with [ ] phoneme 1.phonological unit 2.distinctive of meaning 3.abstract, not physical 4.marked with / /

31. 2.3 Phonology Minimal pair: a pair of words identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position. Minimal set: a group of words differentiated by one sound segment in the same position. ChunkBanBetFanFineSinkSiteSeedJunkbinbatvanvinezincSidesoup vowel Feat; fit; fate; fat; fought; foot consonant Big; pig; rig; fig; dig; wig

32. 2.3 Phonology Free variation: When the substitution of two or more sounds in the same position does not result in any change of meaning, they ’ re said to be in free variation. economics You say [i]ther and I say [ai]ther, You say [i]ther and I say [ai]ther, You say [ni:]ther and I say [nai]ther, You say [ni:]ther and I say [nai]ther, [i:]ther [ai]ther [ni:]ther [nai]ther [i:]ther [ai]ther [ni:]ther [nai]ther Let ’ s call the whole thing off. Let ’ s call the whole thing off. Distinctive features: features that distinguish one phoneme with another. Seal/zeal bdgStop+++ Voiced+++ Bilabial+-- Alveolar-+- velar--+

33. Complementary distribution the relationship between two different elements, where one element is found in a particular environment and the other element is found in the opposite environment. It often indicates that two superficially different elements are in fact the same linguistic unit at a deeper level. In some instances, more than two elements can be in complementary distribution with one another. the relationship between two different elements, where one element is found in a particular environment and the other element is found in the opposite environment. It often indicates that two superficially different elements are in fact the same linguistic unit at a deeper level. In some instances, more than two elements can be in complementary distribution with one another.

34. Contrastive distribution both elements are found in the same environment with a change in meaning. An example of this in English would be /d/ and /p/, as can be seen in the words dot and pot. both elements are found in the same environment with a change in meaning. An example of this in English would be /d/ and /p/, as can be seen in the words dot and pot.English

35. Complementary distribution Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [p ʰ ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [p ʰ ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin). Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [p ʰ ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [p ʰ ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin).phonologyphones allophones phonemesyllable onset stressedvowelphonologyphones allophones phonemesyllable onset stressedvowel

36. complementary distribution There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] (engma, in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemes. There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] (engma, in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemes.engma

37. 2.3 Phonology Supresegmental features: distinctive features above the level of individual segments over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments such as syllable, word, phrase and sentence which may also distinguish meaning. Syllable : longer than one sound and smaller than a word. Phonetically: a unit consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and sounds comparatively loud.(sonority scale: klasp14521) Structurally: syllable syllable onset rhyme onset rhyme nucleus coda nucleus coda Phonologically: it concerns the way vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences. (sequential rule:CCCVCCCC)sixths Terms: Close/open syllable; Initial cluster: splash; medial cluster: pastry; final cluster: test Three-consonant cluster i. [s] ii. [p] [t] [k] iii. [l] [r] [w] [j] e.g. spring, scream, string, squeal, square, splendid, stew

38. Complementary distribution Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [p ʰ ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [p ʰ ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin). Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [p ʰ ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [p ʰ ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin).phonologyphones allophones phonemesyllable onset stressedvowelphonologyphones allophones phonemesyllable onset stressedvowel

39. allophone In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme For example, [p ʰ ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation is often predictable. In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme For example, [p ʰ ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation is often predictable.phoneticsphonesphonemeEnglish languagephoneticsphonesphonemeEnglish language

40. allophone Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes. Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.

41. 2.3 Phonology Stress: intensity or prominence given to one syllable rather than another. Word stress : import/import Phrase stress: black bird; green house Sentence stress: I love you. Logical stress: I love YOU. Tone: pitch variation ( 妈麻马骂 car) Intonation: variation in stress, pitch or loudness (falling; rising; fall-rise; rise-fall) That ’ s not the book he wants.

42. complementary distribution There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] (engma, written with the digraph in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemes There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] (engma, written with the digraph in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemesengma

43. 2.3 Phonology Summary:Phonology Difference between phonetics and phonology Phoneme Minimal pair/set Free variation Distinctive features Suprasegmental features: syllable, stress, tone, intonation, tone group Homework: exercise 5,6 and 7.

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