1. Face detection Slides adapted Grauman & Liebe’s tutorial
Why would this be useful? Main reason is focus. Also enables “smart” cropping.
Slides adapted Grauman & Liebe’s tutorial
Also see Paul Viola’s talk (video)

2. Limitations of Eigenfaces
Eigenfaces are cool.
But they’re not great for face detection.
Chief Limitations
not very accurate
not very fast
To make it work on the camera, we need ~30fps, and near-perfect accuracy. 2

3. Rectangle filters
P. Viola and M. Jones. Rapid object detection using a boosted cascade of simple features. CVPR 2001.

4. Why rectangles? Answer: very very fast to compute (x,y) integral image
Trick: integral images (aka summed-area-tables)
Value at (x,y) is sum of pixels above and to the left of (x,y)
(x,y)
integral image

5. Integral images What’s the sum of pixels in the blue rectangle? A B CD
input image
integral image

6. Integral images A B C D
integral image

7. Integral images A
integral image

8. Integral images B
integral image

9. Integral images C
integral image

10. Integral images D
integral image

11. Integral images
What’s the sum of pixels in the rectangle? A B C D

12. Computing sum within a rectangle
Let A,B,C,D be the values of the integral image at the corners of a rectangle
Then the sum of original image values within the rectangle can be computed as:
sum = A – B – C + D
Only 3 additions are required for any size of rectangle! D B A C
Lana Lazebnik

13. Filter as a classifier How to convert the filter into a classifier?
Resulting weak classifier:
Outputs of a rectangle feature on faces and non-faces.

14. Finding the best filters...
Considering all possible filter parameters: position, scale, and type:
180,000+ possible filters associated with each 24 x 24 window
Which of these filters(s) should we use to determine if a window has a face?

15. Boosting
Weak
Classifier 1
Slide credit: Paul Viola

16. Boosting
Weights
Increased

17. Boosting
Weak
Classifier 2

18. Boosting
Weights
Increased

19. Boosting
Weak
Classifier 3

20. Boosting
Final classifier is
a combination of weak classifiers

21. Boosting: training Initially, weight each training example equally
In each boosting round:
find the weak classifier with lowest weighted training error
raise weights of training examples misclassified by current weak classifier
Final classifier is linear combination of all weak classifiers
weight of each learner is directly proportional to its accuracy)
Exact formulas for re-weighting and combining weak classifiers depend on the particular boosting scheme
Slide credit: Lana Lazebnik

22. AdaBoost Algorithm {x1,…xn}
Start with uniform weights on training examples
{x1,…xn}
For T rounds
Evaluate weighted error for each feature, pick best.
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Re-weight the examples:
Incorrectly classified -> more weight
Correctly classified -> less weight
Final classifier is combination of the weak ones, weighted according to error they had.
Freund & Schapire 1995

23. Viola-Jones Face Detector: Results
First two features selected
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing

24. Even if the filters are fast to compute, each new image has a lot of possible windows to search.
How to make the detection more efficient?

25. Cascading classifiers for detection
Form a cascade with low false negative rates early on
Apply less accurate but faster classifiers first to immediately discard windows that clearly appear to be negative
Kristen Grauman

26. Viola-Jones detector: summary
Train cascade of classifiers with AdaBoost
Apply to each subwindow
Faces
New image
Selected features, thresholds, and weights
Non-faces
Train with 5K positives, 350M negatives
Real-time detector using 38 layer cascade
6061 features in all layers
[Implementation available in OpenCV:
Kristen Grauman

27. Viola-Jones Face Detector: Results
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing

28. Viola-Jones Face Detector: Results
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing

29. Viola-Jones Face Detector: Results
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing

30. Detecting profile faces?
Can we use the same detector?
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing

31. Viola-Jones Face Detector: Results
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Paul Viola, ICCV tutorial

32. Example using Viola-Jones detector
Frontal faces detected and then tracked, character names inferred with alignment of script and subtitles.
Everingham, M., Sivic, J. and Zisserman, A. "Hello! My name is... Buffy" - Automatic naming of characters in TV video, BMVC

33. Application: streetview

34. Application: streetview34

35. Application: streetview35

36. Consumer application: iPhoto 2009
Slide credit: Lana Lazebnik

37. Consumer application: iPhoto 2009
Things iPhoto thinks are faces
Slide credit: Lana Lazebnik

38. What other categories are amenable to window-based representation?

39. Pedestrian detection
Detecting upright, walking humans also possible using sliding window’s appearance/texture; e.g.,
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
SVM with HoG [Dalal & Triggs, CVPR 2005]
Kristen Grauman

40. Window-based detection: strengths
Sliding window detection and global appearance descriptors:
Simple detection protocol to implement
Good feature choices critical
Past successes for certain classes
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Kristen Grauman

41. Window-based detection: Limitations
High computational complexity
For example: 250,000 locations x 30 orientations x 4 scales = 30,000,000 evaluations!
If training binary detectors independently, means cost increases linearly with number of classes
With so many windows, false positive rate better be low
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Kristen Grauman

42. Limitations (continued)
Not all objects are “box” shaped
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Kristen Grauman

43. Limitations (continued)
Non-rigid, deformable objects not captured well with representations assuming a fixed 2d structure; or must assume fixed viewpoint
Objects with less-regular textures not captured well with holistic appearance-based descriptions
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Kristen Grauman

44. Limitations (continued)
If considering windows in isolation, context is lost
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Sliding window
Detector’s view
Figure credit: Derek Hoiem
Kristen Grauman

45. Limitations (continued)
In practice, often entails large, cropped training set (expensive)
Requiring good match to a global appearance description can lead to sensitivity to partial occlusions
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Perceptual and Sensory Augmented Computing
Visual Object Recognition Tutorial
Image credit: Adam, Rivlin, & Shimshoni
Kristen Grauman