1. Thought, Language, and Intelligence
Essentials of Psychology,
by Saul Kassin
CHAPTER 7:
Thought, Language, and Intelligence
©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

2. Thought, Language, and Intelligence
Concepts
Solving Problems
Making Judgments
Language
The Relationship Between Thought and Language
Intelligence Tests
The Nature of Intelligence
The Great Debates
Education
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

3. Concepts Concept Prototype
A mental grouping of persons, ideas, events, or objects that share common properties
Prototype
A “typical” member of a category, one that has most of the defining features of that category
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

4. Concepts A Semantic Network
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

5. Solving Problems Representing the Problem
Image
A mental representation of visual information
Mental Models
Intuitive theories about the way things work
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

6. Solving Problems Representing the Problem Mental-Rotation Tasks
Imagine a Capital letter T.
Rotate it 90 degrees to the right.
Put a triangle to the left of the figure, pointing to the right.
Rotate the figure 90 degrees to the right.
Which of these figures is the correct one?
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

7. Solving Problems Generating Solutions
Trial and Error
A problem-solving strategy in which several solutions are attempted until one is found that works
Algorithm
A problem-solving procedure that is guaranteed to produce a solution
Heuristic
A mental shortcut that allows one to make judgments that are quick but often in error
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

8. Solving Problems Generating Solutions Tower of Hanoi Problem
The task is to move three rings from peg A to peg C.
Only the top ring on a peg may be moved.
A larger ring cannot be placed above a smaller one.
Hint:
It helps to
break the task into subgoals.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

9. Solving Problems Generating Solutions The Cheap-Necklace Problem
Make a necklace for 15¢ or less.
It costs 2¢ to open a link; 3¢ to close a link.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

10. Solving Problems Generating Solutions The Nine-Dot Problem
Connect all 9 dots.
Use only 4 lines.
Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

11. Solving Problems Generating Solutions Duncker's Candle Problem
Using only the objects shown in the picture, mount the candle to the wall.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

12. Solving Problems Solution to the Cheap-Necklace Problem
Using all four chains is not necessary to solve the problem.
Solving this problem may require an incubation period followed by insight into the solution.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

13. Solving Problems Solution to the Nine-Dot Problem
People do not realize that they their lines can be drawn outside the box.
Failure to solve this problem is often due to representation failure.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

14. Solving Problems Solution to Duncker's Candle Problem
The thumbtack box can also be used as a shelf.
Failure to solve this problem is often due to functional fixedness.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

15. Solving Problems “Blind Spots” in Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness
Tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions
Confirmation Bias
Inclination to search only for evidence that will verify one’s beliefs
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

16. Making Judgments The Rules of Formal Logic
Syllogistic Reasoning
Syllogism
A logical problem in which the goal is to determine the validity of a conclusion given two or more premises
Conditional Reasoning
This is another common type of problem derived from formal logic and takes the form of “if-then” statements.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

17. Making Judgments Biases in Judgment
Representativeness Heuristic
Tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how typical it seems
Availability Heuristic
Tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how easily instances of it can be recalled
Anchoring Effect
The tendency to use the initial value as a reference point in making a new numerical estimate
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

18. Solving Problems and Making Judgments Steps in Critical Thinking
The process of solving problems and making decisions through careful evaluation of evidence
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

19. Language Characteristics of Human Language
Semanticity
The property of language that accounts for the communication of meaning
Phonemes
Basic, distinct sounds of a spoken language
Morphemes
The smallest meaningful units of a language
Phrase
A group of words that act as a unit to convey meaning
Sentence
An organized sequence of words
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

20. Language Characteristics of Human Language
Generativity
The property of language that accounts for the capacity to use a limited number of words to produce an infinite variety of expressions
Syntax
Rules of grammar that govern the arrangement of words in a sentence
Displacement
The property of language that accounts for the capacity to communicate about matters that are not in the here-and-now
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

21. Language Characteristics of Human Language
Emergence of Language
Developmental Sequence
Babbling
Spontaneous vocalizations of basic speech sounds which infants begin at about four months of age
Telegraphic Speech
Early short form of speech in which the child omits unnecessary words, e.g., “More juice”.
Developmental Theories
Nature-Nurture Debate
Much evidence exists that humans are biologically prepared for language.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

22. Can Apes Learn Language?
Many apes of several species have learned various different signing systems.
Is it language?
This debate continues.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

23. The Relationship Between Thought and Language The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis
The hypothesis that language determines, or at least influences, the way we think
This leads to a prediction that people of different cultures, who speak different languages, must think in different ways.
Evidence indicates that language influences but does not completely determine thought.
“Doublespeak” is an example of how language can influence thought.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

24. The Relationship Between Thought and Language Words that Distort Memory for Images
Participants were shown figures on the left, with different labels.
When asked to redraw the figures, the new drawings fit the labels they had been given.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

25. The Relationship Between Thought and Language Culture, Language, & Thinking
The Dani – aboriginal people of Papua New Guinea – have only two words for colors.
Mola (all colors on the left) and Mili (all colors on the right)
They can distinguish among the different colors, however.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

26. Intelligence Intelligence Tests The Nature of Intelligence
The capacity to learn from experience and adapt successfully to one’s environment
Intelligence Tests
The Nature of Intelligence
The Great Debates
Education
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

27. Intelligence Tests The Stanford-Binet
A new type of test, developed by Alfred Binet in 1904 to screen French school children for potential academic problems.
Translated into English and adapted for the U.S. by Lewis Terman of Stanford University.
Mental Age
The average age of the children who achieve a certain level of performance
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

28. Intelligence Tests The Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Quotient
Originally defined as the ratio of mental age to chronological age, it now represents a person’s performance relative to same-age peers.
Shifts the focus to the rate of development
Allows children of different ages to be compared.
Mental Age
Chronological Age (
) x 100
IQ=
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

29. Intelligence Tests The Wechsler Scales
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
The most widely used IQ test for adults, it yields separate scores for verbal and performance subtests
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

30. Intelligence Tests Group Aptitude Tests
Stanford-Binet, Wechsler, and other scales test one person at a time.
This is not practical for quick, large-scale assessment.
During World War I, the U.S. Army developed two tests that could be group-administered.
“Alpha” for those who could read English
“Beta” for all other recruits
Group tests are now common.
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)
American College Test (ACT)
Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

31. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate?
Standardization
The procedure by which existing norms are used to interpret an individual’s test score
Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time or using alternate forms
Two types are test-retest and split-half.
Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
Two types are content and criterion.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

32. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate?
Standardization
Involves administering a test to thousands of people similar to those for whom the test was intended.
And, determining average score and characteristics of distribution of scores
The average score was set at 100 and test scores are distributed in a normal bell-shaped curve with about 68% of scores falling between 85 and 115.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

33. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate
Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate? Distribution of Scores on the SAT
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

34. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate?
Reliability
A reliable test measures a variable(s) consistently.
Unlike validity, reliability does not address what is being measured.
Forms of reliability
Test-Retest
The extent to which a test yields consistent results when readministered at a later time
Split half
The degree to which alternate forms of a test yield similar results
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

35. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Accurate?
Validity
A valid test measures or predicts what it claims to measure or predict.
Types of Validity
Content validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
Criterion-related validity
The extent to which a test can predict a concurrent or future outcome
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

36. Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Biased
Intelligence Tests Are Intelligence Tests Biased? Raven's “Culture-Fair” Test
Person is given a series of matrices and must complete each by selecting the correct symbol for the available choices.
The test is designed to be free of cultural bias.
Sample Item
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

37. The Nature of Intelligence General Intelligence (g)
A broad intellectual-ability factor used to explain why performances on different intelligence-test items are often correlated
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique used to identify clusters of test items that correlate with one another.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

38. The Nature of Intelligence General Intelligence (g) Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence
Spearman theorized that individuals differ in general intelligence (g).
To explain why correlations among tests are not perfect, he theorized that each test score is also affected by the specific ability being tested (S).
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

39. The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind”
Multiple Intelligences
Gardner’s theory that there are seven types of intelligence:
Linguistic intelligence, Logical-mathematical intelligence, Spatial intelligence, Musical intelligence, Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence, and Intrapersonal intelligence
Gardner based his theory on evidence such as the existence of prodigies, people who are highly precocious in a specific domain of endeavor, and idiot savants, people who are mentally retarded but are extraordinarily talented in some ways.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

40. The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind” Types of Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic Intelligence
Verbal ability, consists of the skills involved in speaking, listening, reading, and writing
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Abstract reasoning ability, consists of the skills necessary for solving puzzles and programming computers
Spatial Intelligence
Visual ability, consists of the skills involved in orienting oneself in space and navigation
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

41. The Nature of Intelligence Gardner's “Frames of Mind” Types of Multiple Intelligences
Musical Intelligence
Ability to appreciate the tonal qualities of sound, consists of the skills necessary to compose and play an instrument
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
Ability to control gross and fine body movements
Interpersonal Intelligence
Ability to understand others, social skills
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Ability to understand oneself, self-insight
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

42. The Nature of Intelligence Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

43. The Great Debates Nature and Nurture Nature's Influence on IQ Scores
The greater the genetic similarity between two individuals, the more similar are their IQ scores.
This suggests a genetic component to intelligence.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

44. The Great Debates Nature and Nurture Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores
All other things being equal, two individuals raised together will have more similar IQ scores than those raised apart.
This is evidence that the environment shapes intelligence in important ways.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

45. The Great Debates Nature and Nurture How Environments Magnify Genetic Influences
Some theorize that genes predispose children toward varying success rates in school.
Early academic experiences guide the children into different environments.
These environments can multiply the influence of genes.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

46. The Great Debates Nature and Nurture Head Start Programs
A preschool intellectual-enrichment program for children born of poor families
Serves hundreds of thousands of families across the U.S. each year
Alumni score about 10 points higher on IQ tests, are more confident, are less likely to repeat grades, and are more likely to graduate from high school compared to their peers.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

47. The Great Debates The Racial Gap Explaining Group Differences
Within a group with all treated exactly the same, differences may reflect genetics.
When one group differs from another, the differences between the groups may reflect environmental differences.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

48. The Great Debates The Racial Gap Education: The Great Equalizer
Cognitive test scores from grades 8 – 16
Initial gap between black and white students was narrowed significantly by the end of college
Education has a vital equalizing role
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

49. The Great Debates Cultural Influences
Asian American students get higher grades and SAT math scores, are more likely to graduate from college, and are more likely to win various scholarships compared to their peers.
However, research shows that their tests scores are about average.
Americans, relative to those in Asian countries, may set lower standards and place less value on educational pursuits.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

50. The Great Debates Gender Differences Verbal, Mathematical, and Spatial Abilities
Girls outscore boys on verbal abilities and reading.
Girls are better at arithmetic in grade school, but boys surpass them by junior high school.
Males outperform females on spatial tasks.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

51. Education Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Three-Step Model
The idea that a person’s expectation can lead to its own fulfillment (as in the effect of teacher expectations on student performance)
Teachers with low expectations of some students may settle for lower performance from these students.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

52. Education Stereotype Threat
If students are told a test is important, they may respond by performing either better or worse, according to group stereotypes.
African American students are aware of negative stereotypes
Vulnerability to stereotype undermines performance
Stereotype Threat Effect on Test Performance
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing