1. Structure The type of structure an element forms is due to the nature of its bonding.

2. Metallic structures Metal cations (not atoms) Surrounded by a “sea” of delocalised electrons The attraction of the +ve ions for the delocalised electrons forms the metallic bond.

3. Giant metallic lattices Metal cations are arranged in a regular structure. As the metallic bond is strong metals have high MPs and BPs and are solid at RTP.

4. Electrical conductivity Delocalised electrons are free to move. So metals conduct when solid.

5. Mallability Due to the regular arrangement of layers of metal cations metals can be beaten into thin sheets.

7. Ductility Metals can be drawn out into fine wires.

8. Non-metal structures There are three types of non-metal structures; 1) Giant covalent (molecular) lattices Eg; Carbon and silicon. 2) Simple covalent (molecular) lattices Eg; Most other non-metals 3) Simple atomic lattices. Eg; All inert gases.

9. Carbon has two physical forms (allotropes). 1) Diamond 2) Graphite

10. 1) Diamond Tetrahedra of C atoms covalently linked to four others. Strong covalent bonds mean a high MP and BP. Electrons tied up in bonds, atoms not ions, so will not conduct electricity.

11. 2) Graphite The fourth electron is delocalised over the hexagon layer. Giving weak van der Waals forces between layers. Each C is covalently bonded to 3 others, forming a flat layer of hexagons.

12. Due to the fourth, delocalised electron, which is free to move, graphite is a conductor.

13. Weak van der Waals forces are easily broken, allowing the layers to slide past each other. Leaving a mark on paper. Hence graphite’s name, which comes from the Greek for writing Pencils – not lead but graphite!

14. Other Giant Covalent Lattices Silicon dioxide, aka quartz, and silicon carbide also form giant covalent lattices.

15. Another form of silicon dioxide is flint, used for prehistoric tools;

16. Simple covalent lattices Molecules held together by weak van der Waals forces.

17. Physical states Van der Waals forces are weak so many covalent substances, such as chlorine (Cl 2 ) are liquids or gases at RTP. They only form a solid simple covalent lattice at low temperatures.

18. But in larger molecules, or atoms, the cumulative van der Waals forces may be sufficient for the substance to be solid at RTP. Eg The other halogens are gases, or liquids, but iodine (I 2 ) is a solid.

19. Phosphorous forms tetrahedra (P 4 ) and is a red solid

20. Sulphur forms a ring of 8 atoms

21. Sulphur (S 8 ) forms yellow crystals.

22. Simple atomic lattices At very low temperatures the inert gases form simple atomic lattices. The van der Waals forces between their atoms are weak, therefore they are easily broken.