1. Three Stages of Memory

2. Stage Model of Memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

3. Three Stages of Memory Three memory stages that differ in… –Capacity – How much info can be stored –Duration – How long the info can be stored –Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration. Information is transferred from one stage to another Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

4. Sensory Memory Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics Capacity—large –can hold many items at once Duration—very brief retention of images –.3 sec for visual info –2 sec for auditory info Sensory Input Sensory Memory

5. Sensory Memory Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory

6. Neisser's Selective Attention Test: Introduction At any particular moment, we focus our attention on just a few limited aspects of our experience. Ulric Neisser devised a test to demonstrate selective attention. A viewer sees images of three men in black shirts tossing a ball superimposed on images of three men in white shirts tossing a ball, and is instructed to press a key each time a black-shirted player passes the ball.

7. To take this test (only a portion of the complete film is shown here), make a tick mark on a piece of paper each time a black-shirted player passes the ball. Click below to view the film Neisser's Selective Attention Test

8. Neisser's Selective Attention Test: Questions 1.Did you notice a woman with an umbrella walk across the court? 2.How is selective attention useful to us? What are some of its drawbacks? 3.Selective attention applies not just to vision but to the other senses too. Give some examples.

9. Sensory Memory Divided into two types: –iconic memory–visual information –echoic memory– auditory information Sensory Input Sensory Memory

10. Types of Sensory Memory Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory –George Sperling studied iconic memory Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories

11. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

15. Sperling’s Experiment Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second Report as many letters as possible Subjects recall only half of the letters Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No How did Sperling know this?

16. Sperling’s Experiment Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared –tone signaled 1 row to report –recall was almost perfect High Medium Low z Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

17. Short Term or Working Memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention

18. Working Memory Store Function - conscious processing of information –where information is actively worked on Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds) Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention

19. Working Memory Store What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds? To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)... 8361975

20. Working Memory Store What is the number? 857-9163 The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember the number?

21. Maintenance Rehearsal Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Mental or verbal repetition of information Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds Maintenance rehearsal

22. Maintenance Rehearsal What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal? Memory decays quickly To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time) –BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.) 6490582

23. Working Memory Store What is the number? 628-5094 Without rehearsal, memory fades

24. Peterson’s STM Task Test of memory for 3- letter nonsense syllables Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall Without rehearsal, memory fades

25. Working Memory Model Baddeley (1992) 3 interacting components Central Executive Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketch Pad

26. Working Memory Model Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info Phonological loop - holds verbal information Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory; brings new information into working memory from sensory and long-term memory Central Executive Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketch pad

27. Ways to Improve STM: Chunking Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information –expands working memory load Which is easier to remember? –4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6 Sloth Meets Chunk

28. Long Term Memory LTM

29. Long-Term Memory Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

30. Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information –more passive form of storage than working memory Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

31. Long-Term Memory Encoding—process that controls movement from working (STM) memory to long-term memory storage (getting info in) Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store (getting info out) Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

32. Encoding: Automatic and Effortful Processing

33. Automatic vs. Effortful Processing Some information, such as where you ate dinner yesterday, you process automatically. Other information, such as this chapter's concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.

34. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Automatic processing –Unconscious encoding of information –Examples: What did you eat for lunch today? Was the last time you studied during the day or night? You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

35. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Effortful processing –Requires attention and conscious effort –Examples: Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

36. Types of Effortful Processing Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you already know. –Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself. –Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember. –Levels of Processing framework – info encoded at a deeper level will be more easily remember than info encoded at a shallow level. How can you do this? (See middle of page 246).

37. Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's levels of processing framework Information that is processed at a “deep” level is more likely to be encoded into long- term memory than information processed at a “shallow” level. When studying for classes, actively question new information, think about its implications, and try to generate your own examples based on your experiences

38. Types of LTM Implicit No conscious recall Explicit W/ conscious recall General Knowledge (semantic memory) Personal Events (episodic memory) Skills and Procedures (procedural memory) Conditioning (CC & OC) Hippocampus Cerebellum

39. Dimensions of LTM Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory

40. Two Types of Explicit Memory 1.Episodic information—information about events or “episodes” 2.Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

41. Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples: –What month is your birthday? –Do you like to eat caramel apples? Q: Why are these explicit memories? A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions

42. Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events General facts and definitions about the world Examples: –How many tires on a car? –What is a cloud? –What color is a banana?

43. Semantic Memory Q: Why are these explicit memories? A: Because you can actively declare your answers Important note: Though you may have personal experience with these items, your ability to answer does NOT depend on tying the item to your past –i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week when you ate a banana to say that bananas are yellow

44. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Introduction Studies of malfunctions of memory have helped researchers understand how we form (encode), store, and retrieve memories. Memories are recorded successively as sensory memory (the immediate initial stage), short-term memory (or working memory), and long-term memory. In one extreme type of memory deficit, caused by accident or disease, a person is unable to form new memories and lives in an eternal present. Clive Wearing, a world-renowned choir director and musical arranger, suffered brain damage following viral encephalitis, which destroyed both temporal lobes, the entire hippocampus, and much of the left frontal lobe. He lost his ability to form new memories. He has no memory of anything beyond the last minute or two.

45. Clive and Deborah Wearing have one of their regular encounters, thirteen years after Clive suffered brain damage. Deborah describes Clive's repeated experience of waking up for the first time, as recorded in a diary. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory Click on box or title to play. (12:35) Segment #10 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2 nd edition). If you’d like to view a more recent video of Clive click HERE. (5:54) HERE.

46. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Questions 1.Why does Wearing retains many memory- related abilities, such as speech, musical ability, and ability to recognize his wife. 2.What is the role of the hippocampus (totally destroyed in Wearing) in memory formation?

47. Implicit Memory Nondeclarative memory Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness Three subtypes

48. Subtypes of Implicit Memory

49. Classical Conditioning Studied earlier Implicit because it is automatically retrieved

50. Procedural Memory Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses Examples: –Riding a bike –How to speak grammatically –Tying your shoe laces Why are these procedural memories implicit? –Can’t readily describe their contents try describing how to tie your shoes –They are automatically retrieved when appropriate

51. Priming Priming is influence of one memory on another priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic Here is a demonstration

52. Priming Demonstration Unscramble the following words: O R E S L T E P A K T A L S TSME L O B S O M S ELAF ROSE PETAL STALK STEM BLOSSOM

53. Priming Demonstration ELAF = LEAF Why not respond FLEA? Because flower parts were primed (flower power)

54. Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?

55. Two Types of Priming

56. Conceptual Priming The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory Example: Flower power priming demonstration Does not depend on sense modality (works across the senses): pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS

57. Priming across modalities Look at the picture. Then when the instructor says a word, write it down.

59. Perceptual Priming Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features Does not work across sense modalities

60. Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?

61. Perceptual Priming What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture?

62. Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?

63. How are memories organized? Clustering - hierarchical organization Semantic Network Model - associations

64. Related items clustered together to form categories Related categories clustered to form higher- order categories Remember list items better if list presented in categories –poorer recall if presented randomly Even if list items are random, people still organize info in some logical pattern Clustering: Hierarchical Organization

65. Hierarchical Organization

66. Semantic Network Model Mental links between concepts –common properties provide basis for mental link Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory Activating one concept can spread and activate other associations.

67. Semantic Network Model See example at Human Cloud BrainHuman Cloud Brain Red Fire House Cherry Apple Rose Pear Ambulance Fire Engine Truck Bus Car Flower Violet Hot Pot Stove Pan Pie

68. How is Memory like a Computer?

69. Summary Modal model of memory –three memory stores (sensory, working and long-term memory) –control processes (attention, maintenance rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern movement of information within and between stores