1. Functions of Families: Survival of offspring Economic Function Cultural Training

2. Socialization: Process through which children acquire values, knowledge, skills, and behaviors appropriate for their culture

3. Methods of Socialization Parents are: Direct Instructors: Teaching, advising Indirect Socializers: Modeling

4. Providers/managers of opportunities: Control exposure to experiences (e.g., toys, other children, activities) –Particularly prominent when children are younger

5. Age-Related Changes in Socialization As infants become mobile, parents typically increase their attempts to control infants’ behavior

6. Between 12-18 months, children show an increasing ability to comply with parental requests/directions –“Don’t touch!” –“Come here”

7. As children get older, parents gradually increase their expectations for mature behavior

8. Parental behavior varies along at least two dimensions –Responsiveness/Acceptance –Control (“Demandingness”)

9. Authoritarian High control Low acceptance/responsiveness Power-assertive discipline Ex: “Do it because I say so” More likely to use physical punishment

10. Authoritative High acceptance/responsiveness Moderate control –Set clear standards and consistently enforce rules –Responsive to children’s needs and point of view

11. Discipline based on reasoning/explanation –“It’s not ok to hit people because it hurts them.”

12. Permissive High acceptance/responsiveness Low control –Make few demands for mature behavior

13. Neglecting/Disengaged Low acceptance/responsiveness Low control Parents often overwhelmed by stress; have little time/energy for children

14. Authoritarian Childhood: Anxious Unhappy Dependent/Easily Frustrated (esp. girls) Hostile/Aggressive (esp. boys)

15. Authoritative Childhood: –High self-esteem –High self-control –Generally positive mood

16. Permissive Childhood: Low self-control Overly demanding and dependent on adults

17. Neglecting/Disengaged Childhood: –Low self-control –Low self-esteem –Disturbed attachment relationships (disorganized)

18. Bidirectional Influences How do children’s characteristics and behavior affect parenting style?

19. Infants and children with difficult temperaments are more likely to receive less optimal parenting Less optimal parenting increases children’s problem behaviors Negative cycle of interaction can be established

20. Correlation vs. Causation Most research on parenting styles is correlational –Can’t randomly assign kids to different kinds of parents –Therefore, can’t infer cause-and-effect relationships Can’t say that parenting style CAUSES children’s behavior (positive or negative)

21. However, some research has examined experimental parenting interventions –Interventions: Designed to improve parenting behavior Use random assignment—some families receive the intervention and others do not Can infer cause-and-effect relationships

22. Experimental parenting interventions have shown improvements in parenting behavior and improvements in children’s adjustment

23. Parenting styles (and their “effects”) may not generalize to all ethnic groups –Chinese parents more likely to be classified as authoritarian (high control) –Authoritative parenting does not have more positive effects than authoritarian parenting for 1 st generation Chinese-American children

24. Marital Conflict and Children’s Adjustment Marital conflict can include both verbal and/or physical aggression between partners Consistent exposure to marital conflict is related to children’s –Aggression with siblings and peers –Symptoms of anxiety and depression –Insecure attachment relationships

25. Why? Direct Effects Model Indirect Effects Model

26. Short-term Consequences of Divorce Financial: Mother-custody households typically experience a sharp drop in income after a divorce –On average, these households have 50-75% of their pre-divorce income

27. Psychological: Compared to mothers in intact families, divorced mothers report more –Stress –Anxiety –Depression

28. Parenting Behavior: Compared to intact families, in divorced families –Family routines (e.g., meals, bedtimes, chores) are likely to be disrupted –Custodial mothers are less responsive/warm, more likely to use power-assertive discipline, and less likely to supervise children –Non-custodial fathers are likely to be more permissive than mothers

29. Children’s Behavior: Compared to children in intact families, children in divorced families are –More non-compliant/disobedient –More aggressive and hostile/defiant –More impulsive –More demanding/dependent

30. Long-term Consequences Within two years after divorce: –Parenting quality improves for mothers and fathers –Most children show improved adjustment

31. As a group, children of divorced families are slightly more likely to have lasting adjustment problems than children of intact families –Exs: lower self-esteem; lower social competence; lower academic achievement But the majority of children from divorced families do not show lasting adjustment problems

32. Individual Differences in Adjustment Parent/Family Factors: –Exposure to conflict between parents prior to, during, and after a divorce Less exposure to conflict is related to better child adjustment

33. Parent/Family Factors (con’t): –Authoritative parenting by the custodial parent (typically the mother) is associated with better child adjustment –The quality of contact with non-custodial fathers is more strongly related to children’s adjustment than the quantity (frequency) of contact Authoritative parenting by non-custodial fathers and support for the mother in her parenting role are associated with better child adjustment

34. Parent/Family Factors (con’t): –Adequate financial support is related to better child adjustment Likely to reduce stress of custodial parent and promote more positive parenting –Social support is also related to better adjustment in parents and children

35. Child Factors: –Age of Child Children’s reactions to divorce differ by age But not clear evidence that younger children show more problems in long-term adjustment than older children

36. More difficult for younger children to understand the reasons for divorce –Preschool/early school age children are more likely than older children to »Blame themselves »Fear abandonment

37. –Sex of Child: Some research indicates that boys are more likely to show persistent problems in adjustment after a divorce (in mother-custody households) But: »Some recent evidence that boys in father- custody families show better adjustment »Girls may show adjustment problems that are more subtle (e.g., depression, anxiety) and may experience more problems beginning in adolescence (e.g., early sexual activity, difficulties with intimate relationships)