1. ELAINE N. MARIEB EIGHTH EDITION 10 Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Slide Presentation by Jerry L. Cook, Sam Houston University ESSENTIALS OF HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Blood

2. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood  The only fluid tissue in the human body  Classified as a connective tissue  Two parts of blood: 1. Formed elements: Living cells 2. Plasma: Non-living matrix

3. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Figure 10.1

4. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Physical Characteristics of Blood  Color range  Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red  Oxygen-poor blood is dull red  pH must remain between 7.35–7.45  Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature

5. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Plasma  Composed of approximately 90 percent water  Includes many dissolved substances  Nutrients  Salts (metal ions)  Respiratory gases  Hormones  Proteins  Waste products

6. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Plasma Proteins (most made in liver)  Albumin – regulates amount of water in the bloodstream.  Clotting proteins – help to stop blood loss when a blood vessel is injured  Antibodies – help protect the body from antigens

7. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formed Elements  Erythrocytes = red blood cells  Leukocytes = white blood cells  Platelets = cell fragments

8. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)  The main function is to carry oxygen  Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes  Biconcave disks  Essentially bags of hemoglobin  Anucleate (no nucleus)  Contain very few organelles  Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1

9. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Photomicrograph of a Blood Smear Figure 10.2

10. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 10.2 Characteristics of Formed Elements of the Blood

11. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Characteristics of Formed Elements of the Blood Table 10.2

12. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemoglobin  Iron-containing protein  Binds strongly to oxygen  Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites  Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules

13. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)  Crucial in the body’s defense against disease  These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles  Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)  Can move by ameboid motion  Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues

14. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leukocyte Levels in the Blood  Normal levels are between 4,000 and 11,000 cells per cubic millimeter  Abnormal leukocyte levels  Leukocytosis  Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml  Generally indicates an infection  Leukopenia  Abnormally low leukocyte level  Commonly caused by certain drugs

15. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Leukocytes  Granulocytes  Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained  Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils Figure 10.4

16. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Leukocytes  Agranulocytes  Lack visible cytoplasmic granules  Include lymphocytes and monocytes Figure 10.4

17. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Granulocytes  Neutrophils  Multilobed nucleus with fine granules  Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection  Eosinophils  Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules  Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic worms

18. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Granulocytes  Basophils  Have histamine-containing granules  Initiate inflammation

19. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Agranulocytes  Lymphocytes  Nucleus fills most of the cell  Play an important role in the immune response  Monocytes  Largest of the white blood cells  Function as macrophages  Important in fighting chronic infection

20. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Platelets  Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)  Needed for the clotting process  Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm 3

21. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hematopoiesis Hematopoiesis: Blood cell formation  Occurs in red bone marrow (flat bones and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur). Hemocytoblast: common stem cell from which all blood cells are derived.  Hemocytoblast will differentiate into:  Lymphoid stem cell: produces lymphocytes  Myeloid stem cell: produces other formed elements

22. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hematopoiesis Red Blood Cell Formation (3 to 5 days): 1. hemocytoblasts divide many times in Red bone marrow. 2. Developing RBC’s produce huge amounts of hemoglobin. 3. After a large amount of hemoglobin is produced, the RBC ejects its nucleus and most of its organelles. 4. The RBC collapses inward due to ejection of cell contents. 5. RBC is now called a reticulocyte because it still contains small amounts of rough ER. 6. Reticulocytes enter blood stream and begin carrying oxygen. 7. After about two days, RBC’s have ejected the rough ER and become fully functional.

23. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Erythrocytes:  Are unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins (due to lack of a nucleus).  Wear out in 100 to 120 days  When worn out, are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver  Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts.

24. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Erythrocyte Production:  Rate is controlled by a hormone Erythropoietin  Kidneys produce most erythropoietin in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.

25. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Control of Erythrocyte Production Figure 10.5

26. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hemostasis Hemostasis: stoppage of blood flow caused by a break in a blood vessel. Hemostasis involves three phases 1. Platelet plug formation 2. Vascular spasms 3. Coagulation

27. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Platelet Plug Formation 1. Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel 2. Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers 3. Platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets 4. Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

28. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Vascular Spasms 1. Platelets release serotonin 2. Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to spasm 3. Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

29. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Coagulation 1. Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF). 2. Factors such as PF 3, TF, and calcium ions form a clotting cascade. 3. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme). 4.Thrombin joins fibrinogen protein together to form insoluble fibrin. Fibrin: meshwork that traps RBC’s and forms basis of clot.

30. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Clotting  Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes  The clot remains as tissue regenerates  The clot is broken down after tissue repair

31. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrin Clot Figure 10.7

32. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Undesirable Clotting Thrombus: A clot in an unbroken blood vessel  Can be deadly in areas like the heart Embolus: A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream  Can clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain

33. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bleeding Disorders Thrombocytopenia: insufficient number of platelets  Normal body movements can cause bleeding Hemophilia: Hereditary bleeding disorder  Normal clotting factors are missing

34. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Blood Groups Antigen: a substance that the body recognizes as foreign.  Stimulate the release of antibodies or other means of defense.  RBC plasma membranes have genetically determined proteins (antigens).  There are over 30 common RBC antigens; with the ABO and Rh causing the most vigorous transfusion reactions. Antibodies: particles that recognize foreign antigens.  Antibodies will attack a foreign protein (antigen). Agglutination: clumping of RBC’s due to antibodies binding to foreign antigens.

35. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ABO Blood Groups  Presence or absence of two antigens  Type A  Type B 4 Blood Types: A blood: Contains type A antigen B blood: Contains type B antigen AB blood: Contains both A and B antigens O blood: lacks both antigens

36. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Rh Blood Groups  Named after antigen (agglutinogen D) was originally identified in Rhesus monkeys.  Most Americans are Rh +, meaning the have the Rh antigen.  Problems can result if Rh - individuals receive Rh + blood. (p. 340)

37. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Rh Dangers During Pregnancy  Danger is only when the mother is Rh – and the father is Rh +, and the child inherits the Rh + factor. (p. 341)

38. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Typing  Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum  Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type  Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner  Cross matching – testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa

39. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Typing Figure 10.8

40. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Developmental Aspects of Blood  Sites of blood cell formation  The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation  Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month  Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth