1. Chapter 1 Why Be Ethical?

2. Humans As Ethical Beings: The following conclusions are based on the works of Aristotle, Kant, and Levinas: The following conclusions are based on the works of Aristotle, Kant, and Levinas:  the ethical is about our tendency to search for the good  The ethical is a part of what it means to be human; in other words, human beings tend towards the good.  The ethical is the education of our freedom; it is the fulfillment or wholeness of human life by way of our actions.  The ethical presumes that we can be held responsible for what we do.  Ethical theories draw their power from an organizing principle: –Happiness is the aim of the good life (Aristotle) –Moral duty and obligation is an expression of the good will (Kant) –The ethical impact of the face of the other is a trace of the Good, or God (Levinas)

3. Ethics or Morality? Which is it?  Ethics (Gk. ta ethika: having to do with good character)  Morality (Lt. moralitas: having to do with the customs, habits and manners shaping human life)

4. Ethics Guide’s Morality  musical theory vs playing  Learning the rules of Hockey vs playing a game  Knowing the complimentary colours vs painting a room

5. The Ethical Experience: Four ways of locating the ethical in you  The Scream: an automatic response; breaks through the calm of the day; “adrenaline rush”  The Beggar: a response to the “face” of others; their need (Levinas): our responsibility to take care of the “Other”; cannot ignore or forget, regardless of your decision on how to act.

6.  Obligation: obedience to rules, laws, commands, and what is perceived to be right (Kant); based on what you are asked to do; curfew; based on a perception of authority and your response to it  Contrast: the intolerable cannot be tolerated (eg. The Holocaust); based on feelings of outrage, etc; overwhelmed at the suffering of others; goes against what you know about how humans should treat each other

7. Assignment Option 1 You are to write a short story. In your story you must use an example of each of the 4 ways of experiencing the ethical. The main character in your story should be the one who experiences each of the different types of ethical. To help you organize your ideas you need to write a rough outline of your story first. You will be handing in this rough outline with your completed typed short story. Option 2 You can create a comic strip that shows the 4 ways of experiencing the ethical. You must have one main character who experiences each of the different types of ethical and this character must be of your own creation. (Iron Man may not be your main Character) You must have a minimum of 5 panels for each of the different types of ethical and you must have a rough copy of your comic. You may only use stick people in your rough copy.

8. Aristotle Teleological Ethics

9. Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE):

10. Life of Aristotle privileged family; medical background (father) privileged family; medical background (father) student of Plato (after death of parents when he was 17) student of Plato (after death of parents when he was 17) became tutor of Alexander the Great; friend of his father, became closely associated with him; Lyceum (school) in Athens became tutor of Alexander the Great; friend of his father, became closely associated with him; Lyceum (school) in Athens after the death against Alexander, there was a backlash against all things under his rule, and Aristotle was charged with heresy ; disrepect of the gods (Socrates – teacher of Plato) escaped; died a year later after the death against Alexander, there was a backlash against all things under his rule, and Aristotle was charged with heresy ; disrepect of the gods (Socrates – teacher of Plato) escaped; died a year later much of his work was lost in the destruction of the library in Alexandria in Egypt much of his work was lost in the destruction of the library in Alexandria in Egypt Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225 – 1274) based much of his work in Catholic ethical theory on Aristotle Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225 – 1274) based much of his work in Catholic ethical theory on Aristotle

11. So how did Aristotle's ideas become a part of Catholic ethical reflection? In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-1274 ) ­through Arab scholars rediscovered Aristotle. Aquinas's teaching assured Aristotle an enduring place in the development of Catholic ethical theory. In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-1274 ) ­through Arab scholars rediscovered Aristotle. Aquinas's teaching assured Aristotle an enduring place in the development of Catholic ethical theory.

12. The Pursuit of Happiness At the core of Aristotle's ethics is political intent. At the core of Aristotle's ethics is political intent. Aristotle's first concern is not the individual. His first concern is the polis, the Greek city-state. Aristotle's first concern is not the individual. His first concern is the polis, the Greek city-state. Aristotle's ethics state that human life is shaped to its full extent in the context of a community. Aristotle's ethics state that human life is shaped to its full extent in the context of a community.

13. Aristotle does not equate happiness with pleasure. Aristotle does not equate happiness with pleasure. Happiness is an enduring state of someone who does well the tasks that are typical of a human being. Happiness is an enduring state of someone who does well the tasks that are typical of a human being. Happiness is the condition of the good person who succeeds in living well and acting well. Happiness is the condition of the good person who succeeds in living well and acting well. Aristotle, ethics aims to discover what is good for us as human beings, what permits us to reach our potential, what is our internal compass, or what we are intended to be. Aristotle, ethics aims to discover what is good for us as human beings, what permits us to reach our potential, what is our internal compass, or what we are intended to be.

14. Teleology Every art and every scientific inquiry, and similarly every action and purpose, may be said to aim at some good. Every art and every scientific inquiry, and similarly every action and purpose, may be said to aim at some good. According to Aristotle, we are intended to be rational. Our greatest capacity as humans is our intelligence. According to Aristotle, we are intended to be rational. Our greatest capacity as humans is our intelligence. Humans are rational animals, and we must base our actions, as much as possible, on reasoning. Humans are rational animals, and we must base our actions, as much as possible, on reasoning. The good person is one whose actions as a rule are solidly based on excellent reasoning and who spends a great amount of time thinking. The good person is one whose actions as a rule are solidly based on excellent reasoning and who spends a great amount of time thinking.

15. Human Excellence To act virtuously, that is, excellently, is to do things well, to act successfully as a human being. To act virtuously, that is, excellently, is to do things well, to act successfully as a human being. Aristotle held that a good person would use reason to control desire. Aristotle held that a good person would use reason to control desire. We become virtuous by choosing continually to do virtuous things We become virtuous by choosing continually to do virtuous things Moral virtue comes to us as a result of habit. Moral virtue comes to us as a result of habit.

16. The Mean Aristotle was very aware of the need to maintain balance in our actions. Aristotle was very aware of the need to maintain balance in our actions. Be moderate in all things. Be moderate in all things. To be generous is to stay somewhere between extravagance and stinginess. Try to stay in the middle, but in a middle that suits you as an individual. For you, for example, the mean for drinking may mean drinking in moderation, or not at all. To be generous is to stay somewhere between extravagance and stinginess. Try to stay in the middle, but in a middle that suits you as an individual. For you, for example, the mean for drinking may mean drinking in moderation, or not at all.

17. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): "Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe... the starry heavens above and the moral law within.” "Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe... the starry heavens above and the moral law within.”

18. Life of Immanuel Kant was born and raised in Konigsberg, a small city in east Prussia now part of northeast Germany was born and raised in Konigsberg, a small city in east Prussia now part of northeast Germany the fourth of eleven children the fourth of eleven children his parents were devout members of a Protestant sect know as Pietism his parents were devout members of a Protestant sect know as Pietism spent his whole life near his home spent his whole life near his home studied at the local university, and upon completing his studies, made a meagre living working as a private tutor studied at the local university, and upon completing his studies, made a meagre living working as a private tutor When he was forty-six years old, he was finally hired by the university as a professor of logic and metaphysics. When he was forty-six years old, he was finally hired by the university as a professor of logic and metaphysics.

19. Theoretical Reason One of his primary concerns was clarifying how it is that humans come to know things. One of his primary concerns was clarifying how it is that humans come to know things. What role does experience play in our coming to know something? What role does experience play in our coming to know something? Can we know things that are beyond our immediate experience? Can we know things that are beyond our immediate experience? What does this mean for scientific inquiry? Can we know and predict cause and effect? What does this mean for scientific inquiry? Can we know and predict cause and effect? This is the area of reasoning by which we come to know how the laws of nature, the laws of cause and effect, govern human behaviour This is the area of reasoning by which we come to know how the laws of nature, the laws of cause and effect, govern human behaviour

20. Practical Reason To understand how people make choices, however, we must look elsewhere. To understand how people make choices, however, we must look elsewhere. Within the realm of knowledge, humans act not only on impulse as affected by the laws of nature, but also out of conscious choice based on principles. Within the realm of knowledge, humans act not only on impulse as affected by the laws of nature, but also out of conscious choice based on principles.

21. Using the first category of theoretical reason, we can know only what people actually do. Using the first category of theoretical reason, we can know only what people actually do. Using the second category of practical reason, we can come to understand what we ought to do. Using the second category of practical reason, we can come to understand what we ought to do. We know the effect of alcohol consumption upon the body. Or to look at it from the perspective of practical reason, we know that we ought not to drink and drive. We know the effect of alcohol consumption upon the body. Or to look at it from the perspective of practical reason, we know that we ought not to drink and drive.

22. Kant's Ethics Like Aristotle, Kant also held that the good is the aim of a moral life. Like Aristotle, Kant also held that the good is the aim of a moral life. He was primarily concerned about the certainty of the principles of ethical reasoning He was primarily concerned about the certainty of the principles of ethical reasoning We cannot arrive at the same type of certainty as we can in physics and mathematics. We cannot arrive at the same type of certainty as we can in physics and mathematics. Ethics presents us not with rational cognitive certainty, but with practical certainty. Ethics presents us not with rational cognitive certainty, but with practical certainty.

23. God, Freedom and Immortality. God: Humans cannot out of their own power achieve the supreme good. There are too many circumstances beyond our control. For this reason, Kant proposes the existence of God to allow us to achieve the supreme good. God: Humans cannot out of their own power achieve the supreme good. There are too many circumstances beyond our control. For this reason, Kant proposes the existence of God to allow us to achieve the supreme good.

24. Freedom: If the supreme good is to be, in part, our achievement, then what we ought to do, we can do. To have the duty to do something, we must be able to do it. Therefore, Kant argues, humans are by nature free. Freedom: If the supreme good is to be, in part, our achievement, then what we ought to do, we can do. To have the duty to do something, we must be able to do it. Therefore, Kant argues, humans are by nature free.

25. Immortality: Achieving the supreme good is an immense task. It is impossible to obtain it completely in this life. That is why there is immortality, a life beyond, in which we can achieve the supreme good. Immortality: Achieving the supreme good is an immense task. It is impossible to obtain it completely in this life. That is why there is immortality, a life beyond, in which we can achieve the supreme good.

26. The Good Will ethics is to be discovered in private life, in the inner con­ victions and autonomy of the individual. ethics is to be discovered in private life, in the inner con­ victions and autonomy of the individual. good will is our most precious possession, a good in itself. good will is our most precious possession, a good in itself. What is this "good will?" For Kant it is the will to do our duty for no other reason than that it is our duty. What is this "good will?" For Kant it is the will to do our duty for no other reason than that it is our duty. deontological - from the Greek word deon, meaning "duty." deontological - from the Greek word deon, meaning "duty." a human action is morally good when it is done for the sake of duty. a human action is morally good when it is done for the sake of duty. For example, you might not want to go to your great aunt's funeral, but it is your duty. You choose to go to honour the family. For example, you might not want to go to your great aunt's funeral, but it is your duty. You choose to go to honour the family. moral worth is measured not by the results of one's actions, but by the motive behind them. moral worth is measured not by the results of one's actions, but by the motive behind them.

27. Kant's Use of Moral Maxims duty is determined by principles (maxims) according to which we act. duty is determined by principles (maxims) according to which we act. An ethical maxim is one on which every rational person would necessarily act if reason were fully in charge of his or her actions. An ethical maxim is one on which every rational person would necessarily act if reason were fully in charge of his or her actions. "I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law." "I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law."

28. The Person As An End, Not a Means "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end." "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end." Kant does not say that we should never treat others as a means, rather, that people never be treated only as a means Kant does not say that we should never treat others as a means, rather, that people never be treated only as a means

29. Emmanuel Levinas (1905-1995) "...I am responsible for the Other without waiting for reciprocity, were I to die for it.

30. Life Of Emmanuel Levinas  born in 1905 in Kaunas, Lithuania, to pious Jewish parents  At the age of seventeen he moved to France to begin his studies in philosophy at the University of Strassbourg  In 1928 he continued his studies in Freibourg, Germany  experience a profound contrast between Western philosophy and his own much more deeply rooted Jewish faith  When World War II broke out in 1939, he was captured by the Germans.

31.  His whole family died in the Holocaust.  At the age of forty, he searched out an extraordinary Jewish teacher, Mordachi Chouchani  He instructed Levinas in the ways of the Jewish Talmud  Levinas never forgot his Jewish roots. When once he was invited to give a lecture at the University of Louvain, they inadvertently put the lecture on the Sabbath. Although the lecture hall was filled, Levinas did not show because observing the Sabbath was of higher value.

32. The Sameness Of Things  Levinas perceived the Western philosophical tradition attempting to overcome all difference and diversity by grouping everything under an all- encompassing unity, which it called "Being."  Westerners, he said, think out of a unified totality. It thinks away difference.  Difference is reduced to being accidental

33. The Singularity Of Things  The Hebrew tradition gloried in the singular  He could find nothing that would hold all of these singularities together in some kind of unity  He contrasted the Western notion of "totality" with the Hebrew notion of "infinity."

34. The Good Is Infinite  Like Aristotle’s and Kant's ethics, Levinas is in search of the good  Levinas went in search of the Good, which he said goes beyond Being  For Levinas this concept of Being is dangerous because it takes away from reality what is its most fascinating quality: that each person or thing is incredibly unique  Everything we encounter is finite

35. The Face As Witness Of The Good  If the Good is Infinite and is always one step ahead of us, where do we encounter the traces that God has been there?  Levinas goes to the experience of the human face that turns to me and looks at me  Think of a time you had an absolute experience of another: a face-to-face experience that touched you deeply  She or he is "Other."  the Other calls you not to reduce his or her face to being the same as any other face  You are not to take the otherness away

36. The Face As Ethical  The face that Levinas is referring to is not the face of an authority figure  the Other is a stranger, one who is totally defenceless  The face of the stranger demands that you recognize it and provide it hospitality  this face cannot force you to do anything  the face makes you responsible, by making you aware that you are not as innocent as you thought you were

37. Made Responsible By The Face Levinas’ ethics does not bend us in God's direction, but it twists us in the direction of our neighbour  God's infinite goodness touches us without our knowledge  God touches us through the face of the Other who begs spare change of us