1. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN PIECES OF THE CRUST ARE FORCED TOGETHER ?

2. Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust

3. Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Crustal Compression

4. Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Crustal Compression Consideration of Conservation of Mass: Mass leaving Mantle Injected to Crust. Mass leaving Mantle Injected to Crust. Unless Crustal material is returned mantle in equal volume the Earth will grow larger and larger, but also “hollower” and “hollower”. ?

5. CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

6. Crustal Thickening

7. CRUSTAL COMPRESSION Crustal Thickening

8. CRUSTAL COMPRESSION Crustal Thickening Crustal Faulting

9. Denser Crust to Mantle. Crustal Convergence and Compression. Heat Heat and Pressure

10. CRUSTAL ROCKS Block 1 Block 2 Two Origins of Crustal Rocks: 1)Continental Crust – Lower density as “floated” to outside of Earth. 2)Oceanic Crust – Higher density as origin deeper in the mantle. Continental Crust Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

11. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America

12. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America 2. Oceanic vs. Oceanic: e.g. Japanese Islands

13. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America 2. Oceanic vs. Oceanic: e.g. Japanese Islands 3. Continental vs. Continental: e.g. Himalayas

14. 1. GENERAL SETTING

15. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America

16. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Mid- Atlantic Ridge

17. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Mid- Atlantic Ridge

18. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate African Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge

19. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate African Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge

20. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise African Plate

21. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate

22. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate

23. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate CONVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

24. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Crustal Thickening

25. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Compressional Faulting

26. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands More dense oceanic crust Sub-ducted beneath South America

27. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Deep ocean trench

28. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Shallow Earthquakes Deep Earthquakes Heat and pressure cause melting

29. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Heat and pressure cause melting Ocean sediments Andes

30. WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Heat and pressure cause melting Andes Active Volcanoes

31. 03.05.b1

32. 03.09.a1

33. 2. JAPANESE ISLANDS GENERAL SETTING

34. Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

35. East Pacific Rise Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

36. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

37. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

38. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

39. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

40. Eurasia Moved from North Atlantic Mid-ocean Ridge

41. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS CONVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

42. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan The Pacific Plate composed entirely of denser oceanic crust, is subducted beneath the oceanic fringe of the dominantly continental Eurasian Plate. JAPANESE ISLANDS

43. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Ocean trench JAPANESE ISLANDS

44. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Heat and Pressure cause melting JAPANESE ISLANDS

45. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Heat and Pressure cause melting Shallow and deep earthquakes JAPANESE ISLANDS

46. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Mountain building breaking ocean surface as a series of islands or “island arcs”. JAPANESE ISLANDS

47. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Compressional faulting permits “recycled” oceanic crust to rise to the surface, producing active volcanoes. JAPANESE ISLANDS

48. Island Arcs Ocean Trenches

49. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan As the Pacific plate is subducted it tends to “roll- back” southeastwards, pulling the Japanese Islands further off of Asia. “Push” “Pull” JAPANESE ISLANDS

50. East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Motion of Japanese islands away from Asia causes split of crust and “back arc spreading” beneath the sea of Japan. JAPANESE ISLANDS

51. 03.00.a1e

53. Source: R.A. Kerr., 2011 Science, 332, p.911

54. Displacement during Earthquake March 2011. Source: Simons et al., 2011 Science Express

55. CREDIT: ADAPTED FROM THE EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH COMMITTEE, NATIONAL SEISMIC HAZARD MAPS FOR JAPAN (2010), HEADQUARTERS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH PROMOTION

56. 3. HIMALAYA GENERAL SETTING

57. 250 million years ago Eurasia Indian sub- continent

58. EARLY DIVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL EXTENSION AfricaIndia HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Africa and India part of the same continental mass, Gondwanaland, also comprised of present day, South Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

59. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Eurasia (Europe and Asia), part of northern continental landmass including present day North America.

60. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Sea of Tethys Tethys Plate

61. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago CONVERGENCE (Ocean vs Continent) AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

62. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Tethys Ocean crust subducted beneath Eurasian continent

63. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Ocean trench

64. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Melting under Heat and pressure

65. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Earthquakes

66. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Mountain building

67. AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Volcanoes

68. AfricaIndiaEurasiaSea of Tethys Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 150 million years ago

69. AfricaIndiaEurasiaSea of Tethys Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 75 million years ago

70. AfricaIndiaEurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS Present

71. Wilhan and Gaur, 2013. Buildings as weapons of mass destruction.www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 341 9, p618-619

72. 03.00.a1d INDUS GANGES INDIA PAKISTAN CHINA BANGLADESH HIMALAYA TIBET PLATEAU

74. SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE CHINA, 2008.

75. WORLD’S 100 HIGHEST MOUNTAINS RANK ELEVATION (m) Himalaya and Associated Ranges Andes

76. 03.02.b1 VOLCANOES WHY NO VOLCANOES?

77. India Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains WHAT’S HAPPENING NOW? Present Tibetan Plateau

78. India Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains WHAT’S HAPPENING NOW? Present Tibetan Plateau ?

79. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES

80. 1. Western South America

81. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES 2. Japanese Islands

82. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES 3. Himalaya

83. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

84. 1. Western South America

85. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES 2. Japanese Islands

86. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES 3. Himalaya