Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel, energize, and direct people toward goal-directed behavior. Factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior.

Diversity of human motives

Early Theory of motivation
Motivation is based on our instincts: A behavior that is patterned throughout a species and is UNLEARNED. Cannot be directly observed, must be inferred. Thought of as an intervening variable.

Motives as Intervening Variables

Sources of Motivation Biological Factors Emotional Factors
Need for food, water, sex, temp. regulation Emotional Factors Panic, fear, anger, love, hatred Cognitive Factors Perceptions, beliefs, expectations… Social Factors Reactions from others ie: parents, family, co-workers, peers, friends…

Motivational Theories and Concepts
Drive theories – seeking homeostasis Incentive theories – regulation by external stimuli Evolutionary theories – maximizing reproductive success

Drive theories – seeking homeostasis motivation is based in an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension…organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability.

Main Theories of Motivation
Drive Reduction Theory Instinct Theory Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Cognitive Theory Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Drive-Reduction Theory
Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS Physiological needs create an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. The need is to maintain homeostasis-- to keep physiological systems in equilibrium Glucose levels, leptin regulation of set point in weight not too cold, not to hot not too wet, not too dry Primary versus Secondary drives

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory
We are pushed by our needs We are pulled by our incentives incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Drive Reduction Theory Instinct Theory Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Cognitive Theory Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Instinct Theory We are motivated by our inborn unlearned automated involuntary behaviors triggered by a specific stimulus Sucking Smiling Mate selection

Instinct Theory Explains some animal behaviors
Explains some human behaviors Does not explain other human behaviors

Instinct Theory Drive Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Cognitive Theory Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Optimum Arousal Theory
Organisms are motivated to seek and behave in ways that maintain an optimal level of arousal Motivation is tied to regulation of arousal. Performance is best when arousal is moderate.

The Arousal-Performance Relationship

Incentive theories – regulation by external stimuli motivation is regulated by external stimuli…ice cream, an A, money, etc.

Incentive Theory Behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli. Emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that motivate behavior Two Incentive-Related Systems: Wanting: being attracted to a stimulus. Liking: evaluating how pleasurable a stimulus is.

Cognitive Theory Intrinsic Motivators Extrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. engaging in activities or behaviors because they themselves are personally rewarding or they fulfill our beliefs or expectations A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Reward we get externally, such as grades or money engaging in activities or behaviors that help us obtain incentives or external rewards A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Achievement Motivation
Achievement motive = need to excel Work harder and more persistently Delay gratification Pursue competitive careers Situational influences on achievement motives Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Achievement motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to delay gratification well and to pursue competitive careers. Both affiliation and achievement motivation are generally measured using the TAT, a projective test which requires a subject to write or tell stories about what is happening in pictures of people in ambiguous scenes. Situational factors have been shown to influence achievement motivation, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid failure stimulates achievement.

Management Theory Management & Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory X Theory Y Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment. Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated. Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs. Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive. Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

Evolutionary theories – maximizing reproductive success natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success…explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value.

Instinct Theory Drive Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Cognitive Theory Hierarchy of Motives (Abraham Maslow)

We are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.
We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first. Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of Motives Satisfying needs Biological needs Social needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ascending order, or hierarchy, in which biological needs are placed at the bottom and social needs at the top Biological needs physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being Social needs needs that are acquired through learning and experience

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation for Hunger & Eating

Biological Factors Hunger does NOT come from our stomach. It comes from our hypothalamus

Glucose and digestive regulation
Brain regulation Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus Paraventricular nucleus Glucose and digestive regulation Glucostatic theory Hormonal regulation Insulin and leptin

The hypothalamus

In the early 1900’s, Walter Cannon and A. L
In the early 1900’s, Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger Cannon hypothesized a causal relationship, yet people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones.

Research in the 40’s and 50’s showed that the hypothalamus is important in hunger
lateral hypothalamus (LH) was thought to be the hunger center ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) thought to be satiety center research showed this to be an oversimplification the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, but not the key elements.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus Ventromedial Hypothalamus When stimulated it makes you hungry. When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again.

Blood glucose has a role: when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up.
The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit. Blood glucose has a role: when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up. Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by glucostats – neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. Hormones appear to be related to hunger: Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. Increases in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of food has been shown to increase insulin. Recently, a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high.

Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.
Wants to maintain a stable weight. Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight. Leptin theory

Body Chemistry Glucose The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop- hunger increases. Psychological Aspects of Hunger Internals versus Externals The Garcia Effect

Environmental Factors
Learned preferences and habits Exposure When, as well as what Food-related cues Appearance, odor, effort required Stress Link between heightened arousal/negative emotion and overeating Clearly, hunger is related to biology; however, it is also regulated by environmental factors like learned preferences. Studies show that people like foods that are familiar to them; dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world. Exposure and observational learning appear to play a part in what we like to eat. Learning also appears to influence when and how much people eat. Food related cues are environmental cues that have been associated with eating, such as the appearance or odor of food, the effort required to eat a particular food, etc. Research shows that these external cues influence eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological hunger. Finally, stress has been shown to be related to increased eating, with some research indicating that chronic dieters are more likely to respond to stress with eating. It is unclear whether stress induced eating is caused by physiological arousal or negative emotion. It is also unclear whether the effects of stress on hunger are direct or indirect.

Culture and Hunger Fried Frog Legs Dog

Criadillas- bull testicles.
Culture and Hunger Mice Wine

Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity
Evolutionary explanations Genetic predisposition Body Mass Index and adoption study The concept of set point/settling point Dietary restraint Obesity is the condition of being overweight. Criteria differ, but one definition assumes that people are overweight if their weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%. Obesity is a significant health problem, elevating mortality risk. Evolutionary explanations for increases in the prevalence of obesity are based in food supply changes. Whereas most animals evolved in environments where competition for food was fierce and food supplies were unreliable, the vast majority of humans now live in environments where food is abundant and reliable. Research suggests that some people can eat more than others without gaining weight and that this may have a genetic basis. When adults raised by foster parents are compared to biological and foster parents in regard to BMI (weight in kilograms divided by height in meters, squared), adoptees resemble biological parents, not adoptive. Twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for 61% of the variation in body weight among men and 73% among women. Lose weight on a diet, gain it back. The reverse is also true. Intentionally put on weight and have a hard time keeping it on. Richard Keesy, 1995, suggests that our bodies have a set point, or natural point of stability in body weight. This appears to be related to fat cell levels…when fat stores slip below a crucial level, hunger increases and metabolism decreases. Settling-point theory (Pinel, et al., 2000) alternatively proposes that weight hovers near the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium. Thus, according to this theory, weight remains stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it. Researchers have also shown that dietary restraint may contribute to obesity. Chronic dieters restrain themselves from eating and go hungry much of the time, but they are constantly thinking about food. When they give in, they become disinhibited and eat to excess…the “I’ve already blown it” problem.

Figure 10.5 The heritability of weight

Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa
Starvation to below 85% of normal body weight. Body Dismorphia - See oneself as fat. Bulimia Nervosa Binging and purging

Anorexia Nervosa Vast majority are woman.

Obesity Severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues. Mostly eating habits but some people are predisposed towards obesity.

Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome
Describes our response to a stressful event. Three stages Alarm Resistance Exhaustion

Basic Emotions Primary emotion Secondary emotion Tertiary emotions
Love Affection Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness, compassion, sentimentality Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation Longing Joy Cheerfulness Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee, jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration Contentment Contentment, pleasure Pride Pride, triumph Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture Relief

More Basic Emotions Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment Anger
Irritation Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance, grouchiness, grumpiness Exasperation Exasperation, frustration Rage Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity, bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite, vengefulness, dislike, resentment Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt Envy Envy, jealousy Torment

More Basic Emotions Sadness Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish
Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness, sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery, melancholy Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse Neglect Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity, embarrassment, humiliation, insult Sympathy Pity, sympathy Fear Horror Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic, hysteria, mortification Nervousness Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, distress, dread

Motivation and Emotion

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