1. Central nervous system (CNS) Brain + Spinal Cord
Forebrain
telencephalon
cortex, basal ganglia
diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus
Midbrain
tectum, tegmentum
Hindbrain
cerebellum, pons, medulla
cerebral hemispheres
brain stem

2. Cerebral cortex Surface is folded to increase area:
central sulcus
postcentral gyrus
grey matter
white matter
Surface is folded to increase area:
Sulcus (pl. sulci) = groove
Gyrus (pl. gyri) = bulge between sulci
Grey matter = cell bodies
White matter = axons

3. Cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
Left & right hemispheres are connected by white matter tracts called commissures.
These allow communication between lateralized brain areas.
Largest commisure is the corpus callosum.
In “split brain” patients the corpus callosum is transected, leading to neuropsychological deficits.

4. Lobes of the cerebral cortex
parietal lobe
-body sense
-multimodal integration
frontal lobe
-motor
-executive
functions
occipital lobe
-visual
temporal lobe
-memory
-auditory

5. Primary & association cortex
Primary cortical areas are most directly linked to the sensory or motor systems in the body.
These areas project to association cortex, allowing integration of information.
Association cortex is where sophisticated, higher-level processing takes place, e.g.:
planning of a sequence of movements - motor association cortex, frontal lobe
perceiving a visual object - visual association cortex, temporal lobe
making decisions - multimodal association cortex, frontal lobe

6. Primary cortical areas
primary somatosensory area
primary motor area
medial surface of right hemisphere
central sulcus
primary visual area
lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure)
lateral surface of left hemisphere
primary auditory area

7. Functional Distribution of Cortex
1. Primary Cortex (Direct Projection Areas)
3 Sensory—Visual, Auditory, Somatosensory—
1 Motor.
2. Secondary Cortex (unimodal)
3. Tertiary Cortex (Association, polymodal)

8. Subcortical structures
In the forebrain, these are:
in the telencephalon, the basal ganglia and the limbic system.
in the diencephalon, the thalamus and hypothalamus.
basal ganglia
thalamus
hypothalamus

9. Basal ganglia important in motor control and cognition.
Damage to the basal ganglia occurs in Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
5 Components:
1. Caudate Nucleus
2. Putamen
3. Globus Pallidus
4. Subthalamic Nucleus
5. Substantia Nigra

10. Limbic system Functions include emotion and memory.
cingulate gyrus
hippocampus
amygdala
Functions include emotion and memory.
Limbic system includes cortical & subcortical structures:
Cingulate gyrus (cognitive control).
Hippocampus, fornix & mamillary bodies (episodic memory).
Amygdala (emotion).

11. Diencephalon Thalamus: Hypothalamus:
Closely connected with cerebral cortex & its functions.
Thalamic nuclei have distinct functions, e.g. lateral geniculate nucleus in vision.
Hypothalamus:
Controls autonomic nervous system and endocrine system (hormones).
Last sensory way station on the way to the cortex.

12. Thalamic nuclei
1. Ventral Posterior Nuclei: Somatosensory
2. Lateral Geniculate: Visual
3. Medial Geniculate: Auditory
Pulvinar connects with parietal lobe and is a major part of an attentional control system.

13. Midbrain
tegmentum
tectum
Midbrain (and hindbrain) structures perform relatively primitive functions, e.g. reflexes.
Tectum comprises:
superior colliculi, fish’s visual system
inferior colliculi, fish’s auditory system.
Tegmentum includes nuclei involved with :
arousal (reticular formation)
species-specific behavior (periaqueductal grey)
motor control (red nucleus, substantia nigra)

14. Hindbrain Cerebellum Pons: Medulla (oblongata):
important for precise movement
control and learning.
also involved in cognition.
Pons:
nucleus relays info. from cortex to cerebellum.
contains reticular formation - arousal.
Medulla (oblongata):
necessary for vital functions: breathing, heartbeat.
pons
cerebellum
medulla

15. BRAINSTEM Many neurotransmitter systems Reticular Activating System
Sleep & wakefulness control
Controls respiration and other bodily functions
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla

16. Brainstem Components Midbrain
Superior Colliculus: Eye movements and visual reflex functions.
Inferior Colliculus: Auditory reflex functions.
Pons & Medulla.
Ascending sensory and descending motor pathways. Bulge of Pons caused by pathways to the cerebellum.

17. Cerebellum Inputs from sensory & motor centers and vestibular system.
Outputs to spinal cord and thalamus (then cortex).
Functions:
Maintenance of posture, and fine motor control (timing).
Also involved in higher functions including language