1. CPM: Cohort 10 Dissertation Writing: Bringing it all together Dr Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre

2. Regional Writing Centre2 Workshop outline Motivation (keeping going) Time management (finishing on time) Planning and outlining Writing results and discussion Bringing it all together Writing the abstract Peer review

3. Motivation and Time Management

4. Regional Writing Centre4 Where am I? What writing have you done for the dissertation, and what writing do you need to do in order to complete the dissertation on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing -- no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs.

5. Regional Writing Centre5 It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time

6. Regional Writing Centre6 Outlining (Murray, 2006) Title and draft introduction Level 1 outlining –Main headings Level 2 outlining –Sub-headings Level 3 outlining –Decide on content

7. Regional Writing Centre7 Outlining (Murray, 2006) Title and draft introduction –Chapter 1 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) –Chapter 2 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) –Chapter 3 … … …

8. Regional Writing Centre8 Writing goals OutlineWords/Timeframe Title Chapter 1 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 2 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 3 … … …

9. Regional Writing Centre9 Keep writing Where and when do you write? How long does it take you to get started? What kind of avoidance tactics go on? Why are you not writing? Write about why you are having difficulty making advances in your paper –“I don’t feel ready to write.” –Writers’ block –…–… Why write about why you are having difficulty?

10. Regional Writing Centre10 Keep writing Getting unstuck –Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) –Set writing goals –Write regularly –Integrate writing into your thinking –Break it down into a manageable process Don’t allow yourself to freeze up. When you are feeling overwhelmed… –Satisfy yourself with small advances until you feel more confident and unstuck. –Seek help. Talk to friends. Talk about how you feel, but talk about your ideas as well. –Eat lots of chocolate.

11. Regional Writing Centre11 Keep writing Be patient Be creative Taking pleasure in writing Be proud of your writing Get stuck in

12. Regional Writing Centre12 Peer support Dialogue about writing Getting feedback on writing Peer-review –Generative writing –The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing –Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102) –Writers’ groups –Writers’ retreats

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14. Writing the Results and Discussion

15. Regional Writing Centre15 Results and discussion Chapter 1- Introduction Chapter 2 - Background and literature review Chapter 3 – Research design and methodology Chapter 4 - Data analysis / results and discussion Chapter 5 – Conclusion

16. Regional Writing Centre16 Sample comments Essentially a descriptive study. Showed a reasonable understanding of the issues involved but could have been more analytical in the presentation of the issues and indeed the results. Descriptive analysis only and little basis to support conclusions. The qualitative approach was very subjective - this needed additional explanation. No major / minor addition to the topic emerged in the research nor was the application overly original.

17. Regional Writing Centre17 Results and discussion Make Sure… –that the methodology address both the procedure for the collection of your data and the one for the analysis of your results. –that you section the analysis so that the argument unfolds in a clearly stated, detailed, logical progression. –that you view the data objectively. Don’t ignore data that disproves the hypothesis or claim.

18. Regional Writing Centre18 Results and discussion The results section must not only present the results; it must make the results meaningful for the reader. The discussion should not simply provide more detail about the results; it should interpret and explain the results. Methods of organising the results and discussion.

19. Regional Writing Centre19 Results Organising the results Readability Accessibility (graphs, tables) Use of appendices for raw data Making the results meaningful –Explanation –Simplification –Trends –Significant results –Relationships/correlations

20. Regional Writing Centre20 Discussion Organising the discussion Summarise the main results in order to remind the reader of your key findings. Put the results of the research into context. Support the validity of the results by referring to similar results. Explain the differences between your findings and that of previous researchers. Can you explain the unexpected results?

21. Regional Writing Centre21 Discussion (Swales, 1990: 172/3) 1.Background information 2.Statement of results 3.(Un)expected results 4.Reference to previous research 5.Explanation 6.Exemplification 7.Deduction and hypothesis 8.Recommendation

22. Regional Writing Centre22 Conclusion To what extend have the aims of the study been achieved? How has your primary and secondary research helped answer the research question posed? Have your hypotheses been proved/disproved/partially proved? Did the study raise any further questions? Any recommendations for future research?

23. Regional Writing Centre23 Elements of a good conclusion A conclusion should: Remind the reader of the main points of your argument Bring ‘closure to the interpretation of the data’ (Leedy, 2001: 291) Be clear Be logical Be credible

24. Regional Writing Centre24 Elements of a good conclusion A summary of the investigation, the results, and the analysis A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results An account of whether the research has answered the research question An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved

25. Regional Writing Centre25 Elements of a good conclusion A discussionion of the implications of the findings A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion A final, strong, positive statement

26. Regional Writing Centre26 Academic principles Maintaining academic principles –Ethics –Referencing –Honesty –Objectivity Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain. Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research.

27. Regional Writing Centre27 Persuasion and truth in academic writing Because it is argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.

28. Bringing it all together

29. Regional Writing Centre29 Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ Early: to establish direction/focus Associate your project with the literature Distinguish your project from the literature Build on research question/hypothesis Focus reading/thinking Manageable writing task: 325 words To develop thinking about your thesis thesis? Late: to focus thinking as you draft conclusion and revise your introduction (Murray, 2006: 105)

30. Regional Writing Centre30 Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ My research question is … (50 words) Researchers who have looked at this subject are … (50 words) They argue that … (25 words) Debate centres on the issue of … (25 words) There is work to be done on … (25 words) My research is closest to that of X in that … (50 words) My contribution will be … (50 words) (Murray, 2006: 104)

31. Regional Writing Centre31 Sample comments The main criticism of the thesis is that the research was not focused enough in the topic under discussion. This negated the research & methodology sections in particular; while some of the findings are valid, the ‘scientific’ basis of these is weak. There was a sense of ‘stop & start’ throughout the thesis, particularly in the earlier chapters making it a challenge to follow the argument. Difficult to read & needed a more comprehensive set of recommendations. A bit unwieldy, lacking clarity and focus. A research topic needs to be more than ‘interesting’.

32. Regional Writing Centre32 Bringing it all together Key rhetorical considerations The organising principle: –Research question –Thesis statement –Hypothesis Focus Flow Readability

33. Regional Writing Centre33 The organising principle From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis. Chapter and section headings announce the organisation with a logical, linear, progressive arrangement of ideas.

34. Regional Writing Centre34 Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure –Unity –Coherence

35. Regional Writing Centre35 Paragraph structure Chapters or sections are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. Like chapter and section headings, paragraphs also signal the logically organised progression of ideas. Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. It contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.

36. Regional Writing Centre36 Paragraph structure: Unity Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 18).

37. Regional Writing Centre37 Paragraph structure: Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because –your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order –your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals –your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent –you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue, 2006: 22)

38. Regional Writing Centre38 New writers’ errors (Murray, 2005:4) “Writing too much about ‘the problem’.” “Overstating the problem and claiming too much for their solution.” “Overstating the critique of others’ work.” “Not saying what they mean, losing focus through indirect writing.” “Putting too many ideas in one paper.”

39. Regional Writing Centre39 Reasons for rejecting manuscripts Methodology or research design problems Poorly developed idea Poor writing skills Poor research skills Data interpretation problems Literature review not relevant/comprehensive/up to date Key terms and concepts not clearly defined Failure to consider the audience Failure to follow the guidelines

40. Regional Writing Centre40 Revision and editing Editing a document is revisiting it for publication It is ‘sharpening a thought to a gemlike point and eliminating useless verbiage’ (Leedy, 2001: 54)

41. Regional Writing Centre41 Types of edit Policy edit Integrity edit Screening edit Format edit Mechanical style edit Language edit Substantive edit

42. Regional Writing Centre42 Macro and micro edits Macro Issues −content and organisation −logical sequence of ideas −audience adaptation −purpose Micro Issues −grammar −style −format Only edit one thing at a time Listen to your voice

43. Regional Writing Centre43 Revision Revising the structure –Introduction –A clear logical structure –Your arguments / evidence –Conclusion Revising the research methodology/design and methods Revising the content –Accuracy –Style –Use of words

44. Regional Writing Centre44 Revising the structure Introduction –Have you stared what you are doing and why? –Are your aims clear? –Have you told your reader what they will gain from reading your paper? –Have you outlined the structure? Swales’ (1990) CARS model Create a Research Space

45. Regional Writing Centre45 CARS model Establishing a territory –Claiming centrality –Reviewing items of previous research Establishing a niche –Counter-claiming –Identifying a gap –Question-raising Occupying the niche –Outlining purpose Swales (1990:141)

46. Regional Writing Centre46 Revising the structure A clear logical structure –Did you lead the reader clearly through the dissertation? –Did you follow the map outlined in the introduction? –Did you give directions to the reader? (Check coherence, topic sentences and transition signals.) –Have you delivered on all your promises?

47. Regional Writing Centre47 Revising the structure Your arguments / evidence –Is each argument developed sufficiently? –Do you give enough evidence to support your argument? –Do you use the appropriate language to reflect the evidence? –Is the content of each paragraph relevant? –Does irrelevant information get in the way? Conclusion

48. Regional Writing Centre48 Revising the research methodology Is the methodology appropriate? Are the following clear and appropriate? –Sampling strategy –Data collection –Data analysis Are the findings presented clearly? Are the findings supported by sufficient data? How important are the findings?

49. Regional Writing Centre49 Revising the content Accuracy –Facts: Is the content accurate? –Quotations: Is it clear which ideas are mine / those of others? –Are all sources and references acknowledged? –Is everything in the bibliography?

50. Regional Writing Centre50 Revising the content Style / use of words –Are there words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs that are unnecessary? –Will the reader get lost in long sentences? –Are there any obscure / ambiguous words? –Is the appropriate voice used? –Are there unnecessary modifiers? Final read –Does it flow smoothly / read well? –Is it interesting? –Is the pace / rhythm appropriate? –Does it look neat and professional?

51. Regional Writing Centre51 Copyediting / Proofreading This is the careful editing of each line and each graphic to ensure that the material is expressed in simple, clear correct English. Checking errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, format, sentence structure. Proofreading is not editing in the broader sense – it is an effort to achieve correctness in the elements mentioned above.

52. Regional Writing Centre52 Tips for editing Set it aside for a few days and come back with a fresh eye Get someone else to proofread it as well as you Use the print preview button to check layout Always proofread on hardcopy Hold paper below the line you are proofreading Use the find button to make changes Be consistent!!

53. Regional Writing Centre53 Editing a reference list Check that in-text dates and page numbers match reference list. Only enter names in reference list that you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography. Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list. Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent.

54. Writing an Abstract

55. Regional Writing Centre55 Sample comments Weak abstract. A good abstract should tell the reader the imperative for study, the method(s) of inquiry and analysis and key insights from the research.

56. Regional Writing Centre56 Writing an abstract Brown’s 8 questions (Murray, 2005:108- 114) Framework to help you draft an abstract Allows you to see the paper as a whole and focus on the main points of the argument Written at an early stage in the writing process, it helps you maintain the main focus as you write the paper. Revise it as you go.

57. Regional Writing Centre57 Brown’s 8 questions 1.Who are the intended readers? (3-5 names) 2.What did you do? (50 words) 3.Why did you do it? (50 words) 4.What happened? (50 words) 5.What do the results mean in theory? (50 words) 6.What do the results mean in practice? (50 words) 7.What is the key benefit for readers (25 words) 8.What remains unresolved? (no word limit)

58. Regional Writing Centre58 Analyse abstracts

59. Regional Writing Centre59 Regional Writing Centre59 Analysing the journal/abstract Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Identify important criteria that will make your writing more effective Ask yourself the following questions: –How is the paper structured? –How is the contribution articulated? –What level of context is provided? –What level of detail is used? –How long are the different sections?

60. Regional Writing Centre60 Regional Writing Centre60 Analysing the journal/abstract What organisational features/patterns are in evidence? How are arguments and counterarguments presented and structured? How does the author establish his/her authority and credibility? What stylistic features are prominent? Is the text cohesive? How does the author achieve such cohesion? What kind(s) of persuasive devises does the author employ? Voice?

61. Regional Writing Centre61 What should I include in the abstract? A clear concise summary of the entire report (not more than one page in length). The aim of the study and a brief justification for the investigation into the problem. A brief description of how the problem was approached and a justification for that approach. A summary of the outcomes and whether they confirm those that had been initially anticipated. The main results, conclusions and recommendations.

62. Regional Writing Centre62 What should I not include? Lengthy historical summaries and background information Personal judgements: “I feel this thesis does an excellent job of…” Overstatements of the results: “This thesis proves…” Lengthy examples and supporting details “[…] extraneous information and terms which don’t support the content” (Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network)

63. Peer Review

64. Regional Writing Centre64 Regional Writing Centre64 Peer review Assess the strengths and weaknesses of your own writing before giving it to a peer for review. Specify the type of feedback that would be most useful to your stage of the process. Be honest and specific about positive and negative feedback. Start with the positive. Feedback and feedforward. Rules for engagement.

65. Regional Writing Centre65 Works cited Brown, R. (1994/1995) ‘Write Right First Time’, Literati Club, Articles on Writing and Publishing, Special Issue for Authors and Editors. Elbow, P. (1973) Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4 th ed. New York: Pearson Education. Swales, J. (1990) Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.