2. › A. Politics & Society  i. Est. 224; controlled Iran & Mesopotamia. Flanked by Arab pastoralists & Byzantine Empire (alternated war & trade). Arabs took control of camel caravan trade.  ii. Iranian local aristocracies controlled outer areas.

3. › B. Religion & Empire  i. Sasanids: Zoroastrianism official. Byzantines: Christianity official. Both intolerant of other religions… sets precedent for link between Islam & state.  ii. States involved in theological struggles. War over persecution of Christians; Byzantines themselves purged heretics. Arabs aware of issues.  iii. Religion replaced citizenship, language, & ethnicity for identity.

4. › A. Arabia before Muhammad  i. Most Arabs settled. Nomads important as caravan traders; caravan cities (ex., Petra) & merchants grew. Contact w/ Byzantines and Sasanids.  ii. Nomads were polytheists, but familiar with other religions.  iii. Mecca: caravan city and cult center. Worship of idols enshrined in Ka’ba.

5. › B. Muhammad in Mecca  i. Orphaned, lived w/uncle; became trader. Married Khadija. 610: Began receiving revelations from Allah via Gabriel. (Some thought he was possessed.)  ii. Message: Allah is 1 true God and all people should submit (Islam = submission to the will of God; Muslim = one who submits). @ Final Judgment, paradise or hell. Revelations said to follow & supercede those to other prophets like Noah, Moses, Jesus… (Muhammad is a PROPHET – not a god, messiah, etc.)  iii. Basic beliefs outlined in Five Pillars: profession of faith, prayer 5 x / day, fasting during Ramadan, almsgiving, Hajj/pilgrimage.

7. › C. Formation of umma  i. 622: Hejirah (Hijra) – Mecca to Medina. Community of believers (umma) formed. In Medina, put down unrest; supporters then re- took Mecca and re-dedicated Ka’ba.  ii. Umma developed into core of later, widespread Islamic state (theocracy).

8.  iii. Abu Bakr (Muhammad’s father-in-law from wife A’isha) took leadership as caliph (successor). 2 tasks: standardize religion and consolidate state. Re-established authority over Arabs and compiled/organized Quran (Koran). [Supposed to be read in Arabic, its original form… so the Arabic language spread with the religion and became a unifying factor in the Islamic world.)

9.  iv. Disagreements over succession emerged after assassination of 3 rd caliph, Uthman. Civil war between Umayya & supporters of Ali (Muhammad’s son-in-law). Umayyad caliphate established 661.

10.  v. 3 rival sects developed.  Shi’ites supported Ali’s claim (today: ~10%; majority in Iraq & Iran). “Hidden imam.”  Sunnis supported Umayyads - said caliph must follow Muhammad’s teachings, the sunna (today: ~90%)  Kharijite (rebels): militant followers of Ali  Other sects exist today – like Wahabbi

11. › A. Islamic Conquests (634-711)  i. Conquest spread beyond Arabia. 7 th cen., 1 st wave included Syria, Egypt, Sasanids. Late 7 th /early 8 th : Tunisia, Spain, Algeria, Morocco, Sind.  ii. Explanations for rapid advance: lust for rewards? Religious fanaticism? Weakness of foes? Probably talent of leaders & structure of Arab society.  iii. Forces organized into armies & kept in camps/garrisons. Arab Muslims were minority rulers; dominated & taxed non-Muslim societies (fairly tolerant of fellow monotheists – did not force conversion. Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians = People of the Book.).

12. › B. Umayyad & early Abbasid Caliphates  i. Umayyads based in Damascus. Ruled Arab (not Muslim) empire. Used Sasanid/Byzantine administrative style, bringing in Muslim bureaucrats & Arabic language. Rebellions overthrew Umayyads in 750 (except in Spain).  ii. Abbasids took over until 1258. Based in Baghdad. Promised non-discrimination among Muslim ethnicities. Renewed religious leadership – borrowed rulership/ceremony from Sasanids.  iii. Literature & learning thrived. Greek translations, Arab poetry… Baghdad a cultural center w/House of Knowledge. 9 th cen., increased conversion of subjects to Islam.

14. › B. Political Fragmentation, 850-1050  i. Abbasid decline… difficult to control territory. Factors: difficulty w/transportation/communication. Non-Muslim provinces dissatisfied w/ Baghdad’s power. 9 th cen.: local revolts broke smaller states away.

15.  ii. Caliphs relied on Turkish slave troops (Mamluks). Late 9 th cen., Mamluks took over. 945, Iranian Shi’ites took over caliphate. Provincial regimes rose (ex., Fatimids in Egypt).

17.  iii. Spain: Islamic, Roman, Germanic, & Jewish cultures formed Moorish civilization. Urbanized. Agriculture diverse (citrus…). Medicine, industry (leatherworking, steelmaking…)… Muslim/Jewish intellectual activity.  iv. Religious scholars (ulama) preserved religious identity/unity.

18. › D. Assault from within & without, 1050-1258  i. N. Africa: Political fragmentation allowed Berbers to establish Almoravad dynasty (11 th cen.) followed by Arab-Berber Almohads (12 th cen.). Arab nomads spread from Egypt; economy involved w/Mediterranean.  ii. Central Asia/Middle East: Seljuk Turks established Seljuk Sultanate. Eventually, spanned Afghanistan to Anatolia (1071).  iii. Turkish depredations, deterioration of irrigation, insufficient revenue & food led to collapse of Baghdad.

20.  iv. Crusades pressured Islamic lands. Saladin & descendants drove Christians out, but could not restore unity. Area invaded by Turks (1250) & Mongols (13 th cen.).

22. › A. Law & dogma  i. Islamic law = Shari’a. Sources include traditions of Prophet (sunna) revealed in reports (hadith) about words & deeds.  ii. Specialists collected/edited hadith. Shari’a says all Muslims are brothers & sisters and share moral values. Often a very strict code. Still used in many Muslim countries today. Addresses women, family, poor, morality…

23. › B. Converts & cities  i. Conversion/urbanization linked. Converts moved to wealthy urban areas to learn about Islam or escape discrimination in non-Muslim rural areas.  ii. Urban social life & practice of Islam varied… no central authority for dogma. Cities encouraged growth of trade (introduced concept of “check,” reduced/eliminated tariffs…). Astrolabe helped sea trade. Trade cities built in East Africa. Swahili language blended Bantu and Arabic.

25.  iii. Cities & architecture distinctive: tilework, fountains, arabesque designs, calligraphy. Mosques w/minarets built. Muezzins called people to prayer.  iv. Medicine & astronomy: built on & surpassed Greek/Hellenistic. Far ahead of Christian Europe. Many stars have Arabic names.

26. › C. Islam, women, & slaves  i. Muslim women veiled & secluded to varying degrees(practice held over from Byzantine & Sasanid empires). Most influence within family. Only slave women had public roles.  ii. Women’s rights in Shari’a: own property (inheritance ½ of male’s), retain it in marriage. Right to divorce (difficult) and remarry, testify in court (testimony only ½ value of man’s), go on pilgrimage (Hajj). (Men can have up to 4 wives simultaneously, but must treat all equally.)  iii. Fear of infidelity & political meddling shaped role (examples of A’isha vs. Khadija & Fatima).

27.  iv. Islam officially forbade homosexuality.  v. Muslims cannot enslave People of the Book except as POWs. Non-Muslim slaves OK (not hereditary – should be freed if convert). So… although slaves did many jobs – domestic work to military - slavery never became an indispensable part of Muslim society/economy. Former slaves treated as equals in society/eyes of Allah under Islam…

28. › D. Recentering of Islam  i. Decline of caliphate/factionalism = no religious center. 12 th & 13 th cen., new sources of religious authority: madrasas (religious colleges) and Sufis.  ii. Sufis: mystics. Early: rituals/training, poetry, “ecstasies.” Later, more prosaic. AKA Whirling Dervishes, fakirs.  iii. Sufis provided spiritual guidance & rules for life. Urban origin – spread to country.

30. › A. Transition from identity based on ethnicity & localism to ID based on religion. › B. Muslim ID began w/armies inspired by Muhammad. Fragmented under Abbasids; re-established w/madrasas and Sufis.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tpc bfxtdoI8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tpc bfxtdoI8