1. The Transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West 1860-1900
Chapter 17
The Transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West

2. Introduction
How and why did Native Americans life on the Great Plains change between 1850’s and 1900?
What roles did the army and the railroads play in the settlement of the West?
How did Anglo-Americans displace Spanish-speaking people in the Southwest?
How did the Wild West image of cowboys and Indians originate?
Why did some Americans wish to conserve the natural resources and beauty of the West, and how did this lead to creating the national parks?

3. Native Americans and the Trans-Mississippi West
The Plains Indians (mid-1800s)
Northern Great Plains
the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Crow, and other Native American tribes roamed
In the central and southern Plains
The Five Civilized Tribes, Comanches, Kiowas, Pawnees, and others lived
Plains Indians
Lakota Sioux, Crow, Cheyenne
Hunted and migrated buffalo herds
They ate the meat and used the hides for tepees and clothing

4. The Plains Indians (mid-1800’s)
In the 1860’s, the demand for buffalo hides in the eastern markets grew so great that white hunters, sometimes aided by the Indians, became professional buffalo killers
“Buffalo Bill” Cody
Killed over 4,000 animals to feed the crews building the first transcontinental railroad
By the 1880s, hunting had reduced the once huge herds to only a few thousand animals and doomed the nomadic, buffalo-centered way of life of the Plains tribes

5. The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life
By the time of the Civil War, the govt. was pressuring Plains tribes to surrender their vast hunting grounds
Settle as farmers on restricted reservations
Some tribes accepted the change peacefully
Pueblos, Crows

6. The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life
From 1860’s and 1890 there was almost constant warfare
100,000 Native Americans
Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche
Over the possession of the Great Plains and the Southwest
Many atrocities occurred
Chivington Sand Creek massacre
Nov. 29, 1864
In CO
About 200 Cheyennes were murdered

7. The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life
In the govt. signed peace treaties with many of these tribes
Assigned most of them to 2 large reservations
One in present-day OK (then known as the Indian Territory)
The other in present-day South Dakota (the Great Sioux Reserve)

8. The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life
Many of the tribes rejected a sedentary farming way of life
Left the reservations
The army retaliated by attacking any bands off their reservations
Even if those groups did not happen to be the ones that had committed hostile acts

9. The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life
After the Red River war in the 1870s, the southern Plain tribes gave up
By 1886, when Geronimo surrendered, the southwestern tribes also surrendered

10. Custer’s Last Stand, 1876
The Sioux refused to report to the govt.-run agencies on their reservations
They also refused to sell the Black Hills part of their reserve
the army made war against them
The most famous casualties in that campaign were Colonel George A. Custer and his Seventh Cavalry
The Sioux annihilated at the battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876
Custer's Last Stand summary

12. Custer’s Last Stand, 1876
Despite their brief triumph, the Sioux were subsequently forced to settle near the govt. agencies and to surrender the Black Hills
In the late 1870’s, the army crushed brief resistance by Chief Joseph’s Nez Perce and Chief Dull Knife’s northern Cheyennes

13. “Saving” the Indians
Humanitarian reformers in the East began to cry out against govt. mistreatment of the Indians
A Century of Dishonor
1881
Helen Hunt Jackson
Called attention to the sorry record of the govt.

14. “Saving” the Indians
These reformers thought the best way to end the injustice was to assimilate Indians quickly into mainstream white society
Dawes Severalty Act
1887
Ended collective tribal ownership of land
Split the reservation into 160-acre farms
Assigned to the head of each Indian family
Any remaining reservation land was sold to whites
At the end of 25 years, the Indians were to receive full title to their farms and U.S. citizenship

15. “Saving” the Indians Dawes Act
Was supported by well-intentioned reformers and whites that only wanted the Indian land
The govt. also attempted to suppress tribal languages and culture
The new policies proved disastrous for most Indians
By 1934, the total acreage owned by Indians had fallen by 65%
What was left was too dry or infertile to be farmed

16. The Ghost Dance and the End of Indian Resistance on the Great Plains, 1890
Desperate because of their plight, the Sioux and other tribes turned to the Ghost Dance movement
Ghost Dance songs
The army’s decision to stop the Ghost Dance movement led:
to the death of Sitting Bull
The last battles between whites and Indians
The 1890 Wounded Knee massacre of 300 Sioux

17. The Ghost Dance and the End of Indian Resistance on the Great Plains, 1890
By 1900, most of the remaining 100,000 Plains Indians lived in poverty on their reservations
Dependent on govt. support to survive
The Navajo of the Southwest adjusted more readily to reservation life
By 1900 had increased their land and livestock holding

18. Settling the West The First Transcontinental Railroad May 1869
Promontory Point, UT
The meeting of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific
Construction had been authorized by the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862
Much of the labor was performed by Chinese and Irish immigrants along with Mexican-Americans and African-Americans
Summary of transcontinental railroad

20. Settling the West
The railroads emerged as the biggest landlords in the West
Because the govt. granted land to the companies for every mile of track laid
By the end of the 1800’s, 9 major railroads linked the country
Made westward travel and shipping much faster and easier

21. Settlers and the Railroad
To encourage railroad companies to lay track across the country, state and federal govts. granted them millions of acres of land
Eager both to sell these lands and create future customers for rail service
The companies made all-out efforts to attract settlers
They opened land bureaus
Sent agents to the East Coast and Europe
Offered easy credit
Offered free transportation out west to potential purchasers

22. Settlers and the Railroad
Railroads helped to recruit whole families, single women, over 2 million European immigrants to farm the Trans-Mississippi West
The railroads wielded great economic and social influence over western development

23. Settlers and the Railroad
Their pressure for quick payment from land buyers pushed western farmers into concentrating on producing a single cash crop
Wheat or corn
Made them very vulnerable to price fluctuations on the world market

24. Homesteading on the Great Plains
Homestead Act
1862
Helped to drawn settlers to the Great Plains
Provided free 160-acre farm to anyone who would live on and improve it over a 5-year period
Especially attractive to immigrants from western and northern Europe
Distributed 80 million acres of land to 400,000 families by 1900

25. Homesteading on the Great Plains (cont.)
The most valuable western land ended up in the hands of railroads, land speculators, lumber companies, and big ranchers
Homesteading pioneers on the Great Plains had to cope with major trials:
Isolation
Backbreaking work
Extreme weather conditions
Living in sod houses due to the lack of trees for lumber

26. Homesteading on the Great Plains
Many gave up and left their farms
Those who persisted for 10 years or more, generally lived comfortable lives

27. New Farms, New Markets
Railroads, improved farm machinery, and mounting eastern demand for food, all led to the development of millions of new farms
Also there was a soaring American agricultural production between
Starting a new farm on the Great Plains was a risky business
Most settlers had to go into debt to acquire horses, machinery, and seed

28. New Farms, New Markets
To meet debt payments to railroads and banks, farmers specialized in growing cash crops
Made them vulnerable to world market conditions
Also dependent on the railroads to reach the markets
Uncertain rainfall and severe weather conditions added to the farmers’ problems

29. Building a Society and Achieving Statehood
Out of crude frontier settlements, “civilized” communities began to develop
Churches and Sunday schools were usually the earliest institutions to emerge
Residents drew up state constitutions
In 1860’s and 1870’s the following states entered the Union:
KS, NV, NE, CO
Most of the northern portions of the Great Plains achieved statehood in the late 1880’s and 1890’s

30. Building a Society and Achieving Statehood
Early 20th-century OK, AZ, and NM entered the Union
The trans-Mississippi West completed its transition from frontier territories to states
Most western govts. were conservative
But they did grant women’s suffrage
By 1910, ID, WY, UT, and CO had given women full voting rights

31. The Spread of Mormonism
Persecuted in the East, the Mormons migrated to the Great Salt Lake Valley
Led by Brigham Young
Began in 1847
They declared their territory the independent country of Deseret
Attracted many converts from the East and Europe
Created church-directed govt.
Practice polygyny

32. The Spread of Mormonism
In the 1860’s, the federal govt. began outlawing their practices
In the 1870’s, the federal govt. won backing for repressive and coercive measures from the federal courts
Under pressure, in 1890, the Mormons renounced polygyny and church involvement in govt.
Applied for statehood
UT as admitted to the Union in 1896

33. Southwestern Borderlands
After the Mexican War, American ranchers and settlers in the Southwest took over the territorial govts.
Forced most of the Spanish-speaking population off the land
The Mexican minority tended to become low-paid day laborers
Faced discrimination and periodic violent attacks

34. Southwestern Borderlands
Mexican-Americans fought back by organizing groups such as Las Gorras Blancas (the White Caps)
They had little success
The Hispanic struggle for justice and equality would continue throughout the 20th century

35. Exploiting the Western Landscape
The Mining Frontier
Mining booms in the West
1849=CA Gold Rush
Gold Rush summary
1850’s=Sierra, NV and British Columbia
New gold and silver strikes followed in NV, CO, ID, MT, WY, SD, AK

36. The Mining Frontier (cont.)

37. The Mining Frontier
Each new discovery brought a rush of eager prospectors who believed in the get-rich-quick myth of the West
Infamous boomtowns such as Virginia City, NV sprang up
Virginia City, NV pictures
Most quickly declined into ghost towns when the mines were depleted
Legends of American--Ghost towns

38. The Mining Frontier
A few individual prospectors with picks, shovels, and strainers made a fortune
Most barely earned a living though
The real profits went to large mining companies backed by European and eastern capital
Had the expensive equipment necessary to mine the gold and silver deposits deep underground

39. The Mining Frontier (cont.)
These mining companies did stimulate the U.S. economy
They also ravaged the landscape and filled the surrounding area with smoke and chemicals

41. Cowboys and the Cattle Frontier
Open range cattle industry was successful:
Confinement of the Plains Indians on reservations
Extension of the railroad into KS
Construction of new stockyards at railheads
Abilene, KS
Railroad promoters enticed thousands of people to enter the business by predicting great profits
For a time open-range ranchers did make fortunes
Ordinary cowboys did not make a profit
Tended the cattle on the long drives to the railheads

43. Cowboys and the Cattle Frontier
Most cowboys were poorly paid young men
About 1/5 were black or Mexican
Peak between
The industry declined rapidly
Overgrazing
Fencing of the open range by farmers
Freezing winters of 1885 and 1886
Killed 90% of the steers in some regions

44. Cowboys and the Cattle Frontier
The open range and great cattle drives disappeared
Cattle ranching still continues today

45. The Cattle Towns and Prostitutes
The open-range cattle industry produced legendary cattle towns
Abilene, KS
Dodge City, KS
Cozad, NE
These towns were generally less lawless and violent than they have been portrayed in novels, films, and TV
Did have many saloons and prostitutes
Prostitutes came from many different class and ethnic backgrounds

46. Bonanza Farms
Speculators Believed that enormous profits could be made in large-scale wheat growing
the late 1870’s and the 1880’s
established ten-thousand-acre farms
invested heavily in the latest equipment

47. Bonanza Farm in ND

48. Bonanza Farms
For a while these bonanza farms did reap handsome profits
In 1890 many enterprises went into bankruptcy:
Overproduction
Poor weather conditions
Falling wheat prices
Large-scale farming did best in CA
Big growers irrigated their land
Cooperatively marketed their citrus fruit under the “Sunkist” trademark

49. The Oklahoma Land Rush, 1889
The federal govt. initially set aside OK as a reservation for various Native American tribes
Pressure form land-hungry farmers mounted
The govt. reconsidered
In 1889, Congress opened some 2 million acres in the hear of the Indian Territory to white settlers
Within weeks, OK pioneers filed 6,000 homestead claims

50. The Oklahoma Land Rush, 1889
In the following years, under the provisions of the Dawes Act, more and more OK land passed into the hands of whites
Curtis Act
Congress passed in 1889
Proclaimed the end of the Indian Territory
Curtis Act--OK Historical Society

51. The West of Life and Legend
The American Adam and the Dime-Novel Hero
Writers in the middle of the 19th century often presented the West as a place to escape from the corruptions of civilization
Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
1885
Description of life along the Mississippi River

52. The American Adam and the Dime-Novel Hero
In the 1860’s and 1870’s, eastern dime-novel writers created the western novel
Frontiersman hero who fights Indians and “bad guys” for right and justice
“Buffalo Bill”
Character made famous by Ned Buntline
Modeled after William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody
Cashed in on the fame by founding a Wild West touring show that became extremely popular

53. “Buffalo Bill” Cody

54. Revitalizing the Frontier Legend
The dime novels and Wild West shows caught the fancy of 3 young members of the eastern elite:
Theodore Roosevelt
Frederic Remington
Owen Wister
They visited the West and made it the subject of their histories, art, and novels

55. Revitalizing the Frontier Legend
They fostered the frontier legend of the West:
as a testing ground in which the fittest and best survived
As the home of the cowboy
who embodied the essence of manly virtue

56. Beginning a National Parks Movement
The frontier legend provoked some public interest in protecting the West’s natural beauty and wonders
John Wesley Powell, Henry D. Washburn, George Perkins Marsh, John Muir
The nation created its first national parks
Yellowstone and Yosemite

57. Beginning a National Parks Movement
Sierra Club
First organization dedicated to conservation
Muir was first president
Sierra Club website

58. Conclusion
As Americans struggled to adjust to the disruptive changes brought by industrialization and urbanization
They embraced the myth of the West as a paradise
Life was simple, moral right and wrong were clear-cut, and opportunity abounded
That myth was created by popular writers, journalists, artists, railroad publicists, and politicians

59. Conclusion The myth ignored the darker elements of westward expansion:
The use of the army to destroy the way of life of the Native Americans and force them onto reservations
The heedless exploitation of the environment
The fact that the individual prospectors, ranchers, and homesteaders were increasingly overtaken by big eastern-financed companies in mining, ranching, and agribusiness

60. Conclusion
It was also true that the creation of new western settlements:
enhanced the image of the United States as a land of opportunities
Fostered certain democratic ideas
Extending the vote to women
Gave birth to the conservation movement
The development of the vast western resources made the nation one of the world’s richest powers by 1900