1. THINK. CHANGE. DO
KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS  Theory  Theoretical Assumptions (incl. ontological, epistemological and axiological)  Paradigms  Models  Methodology  Methods
UTS:
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
Professor of Public Communication

2. Uh oh … theory!
Theory =
“An organised set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience” (Littlejohn & Foss 2008, p. 14)
A set of concepts used to define and/or explain some phenomenon (Silverman 2000)
“Theory consists of plausible relationships produced among concepts and sets of concepts (Strauss & Corbin 1994, p. 278)
“Theories are explanations of phenomena” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278)
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

3. Key terms Concept Explanation Principles Taxonomies
Terms and definitions that classify and label variables being studied according to perceived patterns (eg. symmetric communication)
Explanation
The “logical force” behind a theory, answering the question “why?” Can be causal or practical
Principles
The final dimension of theories – guidelines that enable interpretation of an event and aid interpretation and decisions on how to act
Taxonomies
List of categories without explanation of how they relate (taxonomies generally fall short of theory as they lack explanation and principles)
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

4. Key terms
Ontology
Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of existence
Key questions:
What is truth? Is there ‘one truth’ waiting to be discovered – or multiple truths (i.e. valid perspectives, views, beliefs)?
What is reality? Scientific realism or social constructed – i.e. realist or relativist?
Are humans agentic (pragmatist) or determined by external conditions (determinist)
Is human behaviour mainly traits or states?
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

5. Key terms Epistemology
Branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is created – how people know what they know
“the nature and status of knowledge” (Silverman 2000)
Key questions asked:
Is knowledge immutable and absolute (universalist) or constructed through perceptions, experiences, etc (relativist)
Can we be ‘objective’ or are we subjective – or intersubjective (sharing subjectivities)?
Can we be independent in our assessments or interdependent?
Does knowledge arise through rationalism, empiricism or constructivism?
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

6. Key terms
Axiology
Branch of philosophy that studies values – what values guide or influence thinking and action and the implications of those values
Can we be value free – or are we value-laden (i.e. biased) in various ways?
Do we conduct value-conscious scholarship – or value-free scholarship?
To what extent does the process of inquiry itself affect what is being seen?
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

7. Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms
ASSUMPTION
KEY QUESTIONS
POSITIVIST PARADIGM
INTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM
Ontological Assumption
What is the nature of reality?
Singular (one reality)
One truth
Realist
Multiple realities Multiple truths
Relativist
Epistemological Assumption
What is the relationship of the researcher to that being researched? (How do we acquire knowledge?)
Independent
Objectivist
Interdependent
Subjectivist
Constructionist (Constructionism denies any access to reality other than representations)1
Axiological Assumption
What is the role of values in the research process?
Value-free
Unbiased
Value-laden
Biased
Rhetorical Assumption
What is the language used?
Formal
Impersonal Voice
Informal
Personal voice
Based on Creswell, J cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18. (1) Grossberg, et al. 2006, p. 205.
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

8. Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms
ASSUMPTION
QUESTION
POSITIVIST PARADIGM
INTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM
Methodological Assumption
What is the process of inquiry or research?
Deduction
Search for cause an effect relationships between variables
Static design
Researcher controlled setting
Quantitative methods
Context-free generalisations
Goals of explanation, prediction and control
Induction
Holistic understanding of patterns/behaviour
Emergent design
Natural setting
Qualitative methods
Context-bound findings
Goals of understanding and social change
Based on Creswell, J cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18.
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

9. Types of theory Nomothetic theory Practical theory (ideographic)
Seeks universal and general laws
Method is (1) develop questions; (2) form hypotheses; (3) test hypotheses; (4) formulate answers (theory)
Deductive
Rationalist and empirical
Practical theory (ideographic)
Seeks to capture differences and diversity to provide understanding that helps people to weigh up alternatives
Recognises knowledge is created by humans, it is created socially, is historically based, and is value laden
Inductive
Constructionist
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

10. Nomothetic Ideographic/Practical
Objective
Scientific
Empirical
More quantitative
Effectiveness in persuasion
Systematic/logical
Causal/linear
The truth is out there
Knowledge is discovered through observation
Interpretive
Humanist
Contextual
More qualitative
Participation and negotiation
Free human agency
Non-linear, no sequence
Truth lies within – we create our own truths
Knowledge arises out of interaction between knower and known
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

11. Theory and practice?
“There is nothing so practical as a good theory” (Kurt Lewin 1951, p. 169)
“Theory and practice vitally interact, and one renews the other” (Boyer 1990, p. 23)
Theory and practice can and should be integrated, each informing the other
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

12. Three Approaches to Scholarship
Scientific
The ‘natural sciences’
Informed by ‘The Enlightenment’ and Modernism – rationalist, empirical
The “discovered world” – objective ‘truth’ is out there
Socio-scientific
Birth of the social sciences
Uses elements of the scientific approach, but focuses on humans – particularly in a social setting
How they behave in creating, exchanging and interpreting meaning
Humanist
Individual subjectivity, human interpretation
“The discovering person” – ‘truth’ is constructed inside
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

13. Some terms
Paradigm
A framework within which theories are formulated, a theoretical framework (eg. postmodernism, constructionism)
From the Greek word paradeigma meaning a pattern
As well as providing a clearly articulated and accepted framework for understanding reality, paradigms can be confining (Kuhn)
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

14. Some terms
Model
Some such as Silverman (2000, p. 77) use ‘model’ in the same sense as paradigm for an “overall framework for looking at reality”
A more common use is in referring to a set of procedures to follow,a mapping of an approach
A practical demonstration or visualisation or a theory or concept
“An abstract representation of a process, a description of its structure or function” (Trenholm 2008, p. 23)
Models are always incomplete because they are simplified representations of complex processes (Trenholm 2008, p 24)
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

15. Some terms Methodology Method
The overall approach to studying research topics – often used in place of ‘method’ (see below).
“Methodology is the ontological beliefs that give shape to the process of knowing (the science of method)” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278)
Usually considered to be quantitative or qualitative, or overall research approaches such as ethnographic
Method
A specific research technique – eg. experiments, surveys, interviews, case studies, observation, etc
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

16. References
Boyer, E. 1990, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, NJ.
Grossberg, L. Wartella, E. Whitney, D. & Macgregor Wise, J. 2006, Media Making: Mass Media in a Popular Culture, 2nd edn, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Frey, L. Botan, C. & Kreps, G. 2000, Investigating Communication: An Introduction to Research Methods, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA.
Lewin, K. 1951, Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers, D. Cartwright (ed.), Harper & Row, New York.
Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. 2008, Theories of Human Communication, 9th edn, Thomson-Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.
Silverman, D. 2000, Doing Qualitative Research, Sage, London.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. 1994, ‘Grounded theory methodology: An overview’ in N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp
57022 – Managing Communication
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC