1. © Pearson Education Limited, 20041 Chapter 15 Physical Database Design – Step 7 (Consider Introduction of Controlled Redundancy) Transparencies

2. © Pearson Education Limited, 20042 Chapter 15 - Objectives Understanding meaning of denormalization. When to denormalize to improve performance. Importance of monitoring and tuning the operational system.

3. © Pearson Education Limited, 20043 Denormalization Refinement to relational schema such that the degree of normalization for a modified table is less than the degree of at least one of the original tables. Also use term more loosely to refer to situations where two tables are combined into one new table, which is still normalized but contains more nulls than original tables.

4. © Pearson Education Limited, 20044 Step 7 Consider the Introduction of Controlled Redundancy Determine whether introducing redundancy in a controlled manner by relaxing the normalization rules will improve system performance.

5. © Pearson Education Limited, 20045 Step 7 Consider the Introduction of Controlled Redundancy Normalization results in a logical database design that is structurally consistent and has minimal redundancy. However, sometimes a normalized database design does not provide maximum processing efficiency. May be necessary to accept loss of some of the benefits of a fully normalized design in favor of performance.

6. © Pearson Education Limited, 20046 Step 7 Consider the Introduction of Controlled Redundancy Also consider that denormalization: makes implementation more complex; often sacrifices flexibility; may speed up retrievals but it slows down updates.

7. © Pearson Education Limited, 20047 Step 7 Consider the Introduction of Controlled Redundancy Consider denormalization in following situations, specifically to speed up frequent or critical transactions: Step 7.1 Combining 1:1 relationships Step 7.2 Duplicating nonkey columns in 1:* relationships to reduce joins Step 7.3 Duplicating FK columns in 1:* relationships to reduce joins Step 7.4 Duplicating columns in *:* relationships to reduce joins

8. © Pearson Education Limited, 20048 Step 7 Consider the Introduction of Controlled Redundancy Step 7.5 Introducing repeating groups Step 7.6 Creating extract tables Step 7.7 Partitioning tables.

9. © Pearson Education Limited, 20049 Step 7.1 Combining 1:1 relationships

10. © Pearson Education Limited, 200410 Step 7.2 Duplicating nonkey columns in 1:* relationships to reduce joins

11. © Pearson Education Limited, 200411 Step 7.3 Duplicating FK columns in 1:* relationship to reduce joins

12. © Pearson Education Limited, 200412 Step 7.4 Duplicating columns in *:* relationships to reduce joins

13. © Pearson Education Limited, 200413 Step 7.5 Introducing repeating groups

14. © Pearson Education Limited, 200414 Step 7.6 Creating extract tables Reports can access derived data and perform multi-table joins on same set of base tables. However, data report based on may be relatively static or may not have to be current. Can create a single, highly denormalized extract table based on tables required by reports, and allow users to access extract table directly instead of base tables.

15. © Pearson Education Limited, 200415 Step 7.7 Partitioning tables Rather than combining tables, could decompose a table into a smaller number of partitions. Horizontal partition: distribute records across a number of (smaller) tables. Vertical partition: distribute columns across a number of (smaller) tables. PK duplicated to allow reconstruction. Partitions useful for applications that store and analyze large amounts of data.

16. © Pearson Education Limited, 200416 Step 7.7 Partitioning tables

17. © Pearson Education Limited, 200417 Step 7.7 Partitioning tables Advantages: Improved load balancing Improved performance Increased availability Improved recovery Security. Disadvantages: Complexity Reduced performance Duplication.