1. Lecture 6: The Reformation Ann T. Orlando April 11, 2007

2. Introduction Papal Crises in Late Middle Ages Martin Luther Other reformers  Calvin  Anabaptists  Henry VIII Catholic Response Ignatius Loyola Council of Trent 16 th Century World-Wide Missionary Activities

3. Papal Status as of 1303 Pope Boniface VIII  Unam Sanctam encyclical stating Pope is over king  Philip IV ignores Encyclical;  Captures Boniface and humiliates him  Boniface dies 1303 Boniface’s successor  Tension between Roman families and French over who should be Pope  Clement V was elected through French influence and lived in France, beginning of Avignon Papacy

4. Avignon Papacy During this period (1309-1377), Papacy dependent on France Some of Popes in this period were guilty of nepotism as well as simony Catherine of Sienna ( 1347-1380 )  Mystic who was very popular; educated by Dominicans  Able to end warring family factions in Italy  Pressured Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome, which he did in 1377  Declared a doctor of Church in 1970 Bridget of Sweden (1303-1373)  Mother of Queen Catherine of Sweden  After becoming a widow, moved to Rome, founded an order (Brigittines) devoted to poor of Rome and politics of returning Pope to Rome

5. Great Western Schism Urban VI succeeded Gregory XI  Managed to alienate both French and Romans  Cardinals who had elected Urban abandoned him and elected a new pope, Clement VII who moves back to Avignon Everyone in Western Europe chooses sides  France, Scotland back Clement  England and HRE (Germany and Spain) back Urban  Italian city states changed sides frequently Rival Popes needed funds  Simony  Sale of indulgences

6. Conciliar Movement In 1394 theologians at University of Paris suggest a council to elect Pope Council gathers at Pisa in 1409, and both Popes are asked to resign  Takes steps against simony  Elects Alexander V  Now there are three Popes: Rome, Avignon, Pisa Another Council at Constance in 1414-1418  Haec Sancta: Council of Bishops pre-eminent over Pope  Elect Martin V, end of Great Schism Council of Ferrara-Florence 1438-1445  Constantinople under threat from Ottoman Turks seeks help  Formula for reunion of East and West  Leads to enhanced stature of Pope Eugene IV in Rome

7. Popes of 15 th and 16 th Centuries Pius II (1458-1464) issues Execrabilis, that no council is over the Pope, repudiates Council of Constance Alexander VI (1492-1503), most notorious Borgia Pope Julius II (1503-1513), leads armies in battle to solidify Papal States, decides to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica;  Old St Peter’s built by Constantine in very bad condition  What had been largest church in Christendom now a mosque Leo X (1513-1521), “Now that God has given us the Papacy, let us enjoy it.” Popular joke is ROMA = Radix Omnia Malorum Avaritia (Avarice the Root of All Evil) Note, however, that these same Popes were also patrons for some of the most important artists of Renaissance and Baroque These same Popes were champions of learning and encouraged establishment of major libraries, including Vatican library And arguably the worst of them, Alexander VI, should be given some measure of redemption for declaring that Indians had souls Popes in very weakened political situation after Avignon papacy; reliant on sale of indulgences and simony for funds

8. Political Situation Early 16 th C Byzantine Empire destroyed; Powerful Ottoman Turks in control of Eastern and Southern Mediterranean Spain newly unified after expulsion of Muslims France and England in uneasy truce after Hundred Years War France and HRE in occasional battles over eastern France (or western Germany) Strong National Rulers  Francois I of France  Charles V HRE (Spain, Germany, Netherlands)  Henry VII in England

9. German Reformation How it started: 1517, Albrecht of Mainz wants to be Archbishop  Albrecht buys his archbishopric from Rome (Leo X); Rome needs the money in part to help pay for rebuilding of St. Peters  Rome authorizes the preaching of a special indulgence in Germany, with the money to go to Albrecht to repay him Martin Luther (1483-1546)  Responds to this situation with 95 Thesis  Go far beyond denouncing sin of simony and corruption; fundamentally calls into question Rome’s primacy and theology of indulgences; denounces scholasticism  German princes, especially Fredrick the Wise of Saxony, support Luther against Rome and against HRE Charles V

10. Martin Luther (1483-1546) Luther was influenced by humanism; studied Biblical languages and the early Church Fathers, especially Augustine Driven by internal and external events Internal struggle  As a young Augustinian monk, Luther struggles to appease God for his sins  Finally realizes that nothing he can do can appease God;  Salvation must be God’s free gift that one accepts by faith

11. Lutheran Theology: Three Solas Sola Scriptura  Rejection of philosophical developments; Scripture is all that one needs  Scripture should be available to everyone, unmediated; Luther translates Bible into German, although with his own interpretation built into it  Return to original Biblical languages for Biblical study; reject any OT books not written in Hebrew (deutrocanonical books; i.e., most philosophical books)  Very important that everyone can read Sola Fides  Faith in Jesus Christ is necessary and sufficient for salvation  Universal priesthood of all believers Sola Gratia  Only God’s grace can save you  Only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist  Accepts Real Presence, but not transubstantiation as a way to describe it

12. Luther-Erasmus Debates on Free Will Replay of Pelagian controversy Erasmus writes a book, called On Free Will, like Augustine wrote early in his career In response Luther writes a book called On Bondage of Will, makes points similar to Augustine against Pelagius on need for grace, predestination As in Pelagian controversy, how does one interpret Paul’s Letter to Romans?

13. John Calvin (1509 - 1564) Accepted Luther’s maxim “Sola Scriptura, Sola Fides, Sola Gratia) and extended it  Accepted double predestination (as defined by Augustine)  Rejected real presence in Eucharist Established a ‘holy’ city in Geneva: Calvinism, had an extensive influence on Protestant movement, especially in Scotland (Presbyterians), France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans) Note that all reformers looked to Augustine as their ‘patron saint’

14. Anabaptists (Radical Reform) Opposed infant baptism; rather baptism should be accepted when one accepted faith in Jesus Christ Luther was both opposed to them Considered themselves completely separate from State; did not believe that all professing Christians were part of Church Politically and religiously exclusive; thus persecuted by all others as a threat to civil unity

15. Reformation in England Henry VIII initially opposes Luther, remains faithful to Rome Henry married Catherine of Spain in 1509 (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, aunt of Charles V)  marriage yields no male heir  Pope Clement VII refuses to annul marriage  Note the request comes in 1527, just after Charles V had sacked Rome and Clement not eager to further provoke Charles Henry declares himself head of Church in England 1532 Thomas More and other executed 1535 Very little doctrinal disagreement between Henry VIII and Rome

16. Religious Map of Europe c. 1560

17. Catholic Response: Jesuits Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) NOT founded to counter Reformation; but charter put Jesuits on front lines against Reformers Education very important in Jesuit belief Jesuits very focused on work among people Jesuit life-style in many ways opposite that of a monastery

18. Key Points of Jesuit Charter (1541) Vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities; Special relationship to Pope Increased probations. The novitiate is prolonged from one year to two, with a third year, which usually falls after the priesthood. Candidates are moreover at first admitted to simple vows only, solemn vows coming much later on; The Society does not keep choir; It does not have a distinctive religious habit; It is also said to have been the first order to undertake officially and by virtue of its constitutions active works such as the following: foreign missions, at the pope's bidding; the education of youth of all classes; the instruction of the ignorant and the poor; ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc.

19. Catholic Response: Council of Trent Called by Pope Paul III Lengthy, intermittent (1545-1563)  Pope initially reluctant to call council because of bad experiences with councils (especially Council of Constance) in 15th C  Purpose was both to address reform of practice and to uphold Catholic doctrine  Developed in several sessions Jesuits play a major theological role at Trent; encouraged explicit statement of Catholic doctrine in opposition to Protestant views

20. Key Theological Statements from Trent Scripture and tradition Sacraments are effect through performance of sacramental action, “ex opere operato” Affirmed Mass as sacrifice and transubstantiation Affirmed 7 sacraments Good works together with faith brings about salvation Affirmed indulgences and intercession of saints

21. Revived Catholic Spirituality Teresa of Avila 1515-1582  Pioneered major reforms of monastic orders (male and female)  Special relationship with John of Cross  Encouraged renewed devotion of Catholics in opposition to Protestants  First woman declared a doctor of Church (1970) John of Cross 1542-1591  Follower of Theresa of Avila  Mystic and writer of popular devotional works Francis de Sales 1567-1622  Educated by Jesuits  Argued against Calvinists; bishop in absentia of Geneva  Wrote popular devotional works; On Devout Life very influential

22. Expansion of Spanish and Portuguese Culture 16 th C Voyages of discovery  Driven by economics  Religion followed economics Jesuits and Franciscans were primary Catholic missionary orders Many saw colonization of new world (Western Hemisphere) as a way to escape turmoil of old world