1. Poststructuralist and Postmodern Approaches
Cultural Research
Poststructuralist and Postmodern Approaches

2. Poststructuralism

3. Poststructuralism
In order to understand poststructuralism adequately, we first need a basic grasp of structuralism
Poststructuralism was in some ways a reaction to, and in some ways a continuation of structuralism

4. Structuralism
Structuralism was one of the greatest intellectual movements of the first two-thirds of the twentieth century
Its founding father was the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure

5. Ferdinand de Saussure

6. Saussure Saussure saw language as operating on two levels:
“parole”: the actual things we say, write etc in our everyday lives
“langue”: the rules - in other words structure - of the language

7. Saussure
“Parole” has a material existence - we hear it or see it - and is abundant, varied and unpredictable (we can never be absolutely certain what anyone will say)

8. Saussure
“Langue” is a finite set of rules which linguists deduce from their analysis of “parole”
It has no material existence as such (language exists only as “parole”) and is relatively unchanging
The rules of English grammar, for example, have changed little over the past two centuries

9. Structuralism
Structure, then, is a set of abstract rules underlying the surface variety of human life
Structures are relatively stable and, if we go deep enough, universal

10. Structuralism
American linguist Noam Chomsky has argued there is a deep-structure Universal Grammar underlying all languages
He claims we are all born with this Universal Grammar programmed into our genes, which explains the ability of any child to learn any language

11. Structuralism
These ideas were taken up by scholars working in a wide range of fields, and applied to their area of study
One of the most famous structuralists was the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss

12. Claude Lévi-Strauss

13. Structuralism
One of his best known studies was of the myths of primitive peoples
He claimed to be able to isolate universal structures among the great variety of myths found in many different parts of the world

14. Structuralism
He reduced these underlying structures to quasi-mathematical formulas. For example, the basic structure of myth is expressed as:
A B
non-A non-B

15. Structuralism
For example, a battle fought fairly (A) would result in a better world (B), whereas a battle fought unfairly (not A) would result in a worse world (not B)
And so on for good kings versus bad kings, excess versus moderation etc. etc.

16. Poststructuralism
Like structuralism, poststructuralism was French in origin, though it too spread to be a truly international phenomenon

17. Poststructuralism Its most important figures are:
Jacques Lacan ( )
Jacques Derrida ( )
Michel Foucault ( )

18. Poststructuralism
Lacan developed an alternative set of psychoanalytic theories to those offered by Freud (who, though predating the structuralist movement, was to some extent “claimed” by them)
Derrida developed the method of textual analysis known as “deconstruction” which was not interested in universal rules underlying the text, but in the actual architecture of the text itself

19. Poststructuralism
Foucault developed a theory of discourse which is still used by many in the academic field (including myself)
In the following few slides I will focus on Foucault, since he is the poststructuralist with whom I am most familiar

20. Michel Foucault

21. Michel Foucault Foucault’s main works were: Madness and Civilisation
The Birth of the Clinic
The Order of Things
Discipline and Punish
The History of Sexuality

22. Michel Foucault Reality is constituted through discourse
For example, “madness” is not something which simply is across all times and space
“Madness” is constituted by discourses of madness, and these vary historically and geographically
“Man” (and “sexuality”) were “invented” in the 19th century!

23. What is discourse?
Discursive formations are “systems of dispersion” - they have no single author and are made up of “statements” emerging from a wide range of sources

24. What is discourse?
While language is the main expressive vehicle for discourses, they can be carried by any expressive form: photography, painting, cartoons, architecture, statuary, music, dance…

25. Doing Discursive Analysis
Discourse analysis involves the analysis of a large number of texts, from different sources, in different styles, formats and so on (not just language but also images, music, art, dance, architecture, statuary and so on…)

26. Doing Discursive Analysis
It involves not a search for underlying abstract rules, but the isolation of actually recurring patterns and themes
These patterns are then related to non-discursive elements revealing relationships of power and contestation

27. Foucault and Knowledge
Knowledge is not universal, but is generated within the framework of the dominant episteme
The greatest event of the late 18th century was not the French Revolution but a change in the episteme which affected all subsequent knowledge

28. Foucault and Knowledge
Towards the end of his life (1980s) Foucault sensed that the then current episteme was reaching the point of exhaustion
This new episteme - if we accept that such a thing exists - would be the postmodern episteme

29. The Postmodern Critique

30. The Postmodern Critique
The postmodern critique is an extraordinarily radical critique of knowledge
The Enlightenment Project is not only over, it has ended in failure
The Enlightenment Project was also an alibi for the expansionary programmes of the Great European Powers

31. Postmodernism
The Grand Narratives have collapsed and have been replaced by “small narratives”

32. Loss of historicity
History as a treasure-trove of styles, pastiche, loss of any sense of process/struggle, the sense of time displaced by a sense of space

33. The decentred self
The disappearance of the bounded self, schizo/multiphrenic identities, the cult of sensation, the emergence of a new “sensorium”, the aestheticisation of everyday life

34. Postmodernism and Art Collapse of Boundaries between High and Low Art
Mixing of styles, quoting, intertextuality, reflexivity, the suspect nature of “originality”

35. Postmodernism and Marx
The Marxist view of postmodernism (Frederic Jameson): Postmodernism is the culture of the latest (globalising) phase of capitalism, which has eroded the authority structures of the nation-states

36. Postmodernism and Power
Have knowledge and power become sites of play?
Or has the struggle for knowledge and power simply assumed new forms?