1. Ecosystem Management And Preservation

2. Ecosystem Preservation – Boreal Forests, etc.

3. Semi-Natural Ecosystems
Ecosystems that have been modified by some human activities such as logging, fishing and grazing but which are still dominated by native species

4. Early Conservation Efforts
3000 YA – Ikhnaton sets aside land for game preserve
Asoka – BCE declared some animals can’t be killed, forests not burned

5. Modern National Parks – Yellowstone N.P. - 1872

7. Hayden survey of Yellowstone – 1870

8. Yellowstone National Park – Army Bike Patrol

9. Reserves
Reserves – any natural or semi-natural ecosystem that is protected from most forms of human use - however, we must remember that reserves go by several different names - national parks, refuges, national monuments, national wilderness areas, preserves and more; with many regional and local versions of reserves too

10. Reserve Selection Reserves are developed by a variety of mechanisms:
Government action – usually at a national level, but may happen at regional or local level as well
Land purchases by private individuals and conservation organizations (such as The Nature Conservancy)
Actions of indigenous peoples and traditional societies
Development of biological field stations – usually combine biodiversity protection and research with education

11. Grand Canyon

12. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

13. Houston Toad

15. The Nature Conservancy – active since 1951 in the US

16. Nature Reserves Managed by native people – Arnheim land, Australia

17. Biological field stations as Reserves

18. Creating Preserves Creating new reserves requires the following steps:
Identifying priorities for conservation
Determining those areas of each country that should be protected to meet conservation priorities
Linking new protected areas to existing conservation networks, using techniques such as gap analysis

19. Setting Priorities
Distinctiveness (or irrereplaceability) – an ecosystem that consists of primarily rare or endemic species or that has other unusual attributes (scenic value, geological features) is given highest priority
Endangerment (or vulnerability) – species in danger of extinction are of greater concern than those that are not
Utility – species that have present or potential value to people are given more conservation priority than species of no obvious use to people

20. Distinctive Ecosystem – Peat Bogs

21. Rarity – European Bison

22. European Bison Distribution
Light green – Holocene range; Dark green – late Middle Ages;
Red – current distribution

23. Utility – wild apple Kazakhstan

24. Kazakhstan Apple Region - circled

25. Determining which areas should be protected
The Species Approach – focus on focal species (indicators, flagship or umbrella species)
The Ecosystem approach – save enough representatives of each ecosystem (at least 10%) can save most biodiversity
The Hotspot Approach – save areas that have high numbers of species – especially rare or endemic species

26. Flagship species – Eurasian Lynx

27. Umbrella Species – Northern Spotted Owl

28. Indicator species – Freshwater mussels

29. Ecosystem Classification

30. Ponderosa Pine Forest

31. Hotspots
Hot spots or centers of diversity – are areas with high levels of species diversity and usually also high levels of endemism – thus become key areas to preserve – at least 34 global hotspots have been identified

32. 34 Biodiversity Hotspots

33. 34 Biodiversity Hotspots

35. Continental U.S. Biodiversity Hotspots

37. Protected Areas in the U.S.

38. Hotspots and Protected Areas in the U.S.

39. Habitat Occupied and Reserves for Hawaiian Finches

40. Hotspots on Mt. Mulanje, Malawi

41. Rare and Endangered Species in the US
Andy Dobson examined the distributions of 900 rare and endangered species in the US and found:
0.8 to 3.3 percent of the land in the lower 48 states provides habitat for just over 50% of the rare and endangered species
At risk reptiles and amphibians occupy 0.68% of US land; endangered fish take up the most space %
San Diego County, California is a hot spot for endangered fish, mammals and plants
Santa Cruz County, California is a hot spot for endangered arthropods, reptiles, amphibians, and plants
4 counties in Hawaii are hot spots for endangered birds and plants

42. Is saving hotspots enough?
in Great Britain 43% of birds with narrow habitat ranges did not occur in hot spots
in Australia 54% of birds with narrow habitat ranges did not occur in hot spots

43. Gap Analysis
Data are compiled on the species, ecosystems and physical features of the region – sometimes referred to as conservation units or ecoregions
Conservation goals are identified, such as amount of area to be protected for each ecosystem
Existing conservation areas are reviewed to determine what is protected already and what is not (identifying the gaps)
Additional areas are identified to help meet the conservation goals (filling the gaps)
Additional areas are acquired for conservation and a management plan is developed and implemented
The new protected areas are monitored and management plans adjusted

44. Idaho Ecoregions – birth of GAP analysis

45. Idaho – Cedar-Hemlock Forest

46. Idaho – Western Juniper Shrubland

47. General issues in reserve design – the 4 Rs
Representation – the protected area should contain as many aspects of biodiversity (populations, species, habitats, etc) as possible
Resiliency – protected areas must be sufficiently large to maintain all aspects of biodiversity in a healthy condition for the foreseeable future, including the predicted impacts of climate change 
Redundancy – protected areas must include enough examples of each aspect of biodiversity to ensure its long-term existence in the face of future uncertainties
Reality – the must be sufficient funds and political will, not only to acquire and protect lands, but also to subsequently regulate and manage the protected areas

48. More specific questions:
How large must a nature reserve be to effectively protect biodiversity?
Is it better to have a single large protected area or multiple smaller reserves?
How many individuals of an endangered species must be included in a protected area to prevent extinction of the species?
What is the best shape for a nature reserve?
When a network of protected areas is created, should the areas be close together or far apart? Should they be connected to each other or isolated from each other?

49. The Fate of Island Reserves – How big is big enough?
Thomas Lovejoy

51. Minimum Critical Size Study Reserves

52. Edge of Minimum Critical Size Study Reserves

53. Basic Reserve Design Big reserve better than small
One big better than several small in same habitat
Closer is better than spread out
Clustered is better than linear
Having corridors is better than not
Circular is better than other shapes

55. Species losses in Western North American National Parks

58. Grizzly Bear – Ursus arctos horribilus

60. Flag of California

64. Australian Conservation Networks Alps to Atherton in east and Gondwana Link in southwest