1. VII
Language Change

2. 7.3 Morphological and syntactic change
7.1 Introduction
All languages change through time, though they do so rather slowly. The changes can be found in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.
7.2 Sound change
Sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language.
7.3 Morphological and syntactic change
7.3.1 Change in “agreement” rule
Whan that Aprille with his showers sooth….
When that April with his showers sweet...
In Modern English, April is replaced by the pronoun it, and his only refers to an animate masculine noun, thus revealing the change in “agreement” rule.

3. 7.3.2 Change in negation rule
I love thee not.---- I do not love you
He saw you not.--- He did not see you.
7.3.3 Process of simplification
There may be a loss of grammatical distinctions, through a process simplification. Old English, for example, had a number of case and gender distinctions which were lost during the Middle English period.
7.3.4 Loss of inflection
Inflections often change by a process of rule-generalization, e. g.
Old English: stan/ slanas gear/gear
Modern English: stone/ stones year/years
7.4 Vocabulary change
Vocabulary change can include: addition of new words; loss of words; changes in the meaning of words.
    

4. 7.4.1 Addition of new words c) Blending: d) Acronyms:
   a) Coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose: walkman,
   b) Clipped words: clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases
Gym — gymnasium; fridge — refrigerator; disco --- discotheque
c)  Blending:
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words
Smog--- smoke+ fog; motel--- motor+ hotel; brunch--- breakfast + recorder
d) Acronyms:
words derived from the initials of several words
WTO--- World Trade Organization; IT--- information technology
e) Back-formation:
new words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix though to be part of the old word. Such words are thus called back-formation
To edit--- (derived from editor); to beg--- (derived from beggar)
f) Functional shift
Noun to verb: to knee; to shoulder; to tape
Verb to noun: a hold; a reject; a retreat
Adjective to verb: to cool; to narrow; to slow

5. 7.4.3 Changes in the meaning of words
d) Borrowing:
When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word.
7.4.2 Loss of words
The loss of words takes place gradually over the course of several generations. On the other hand, the arrival of a new word is quite obvious and often draws attention.
7.4.3 Changes in the meaning of words
a)  Widening of meaning b) Narrowing of meaning c)Meaning shift
7.5 Some recent trends
Moving towards greater informality
The influence of American English
The influence of science and technology:
a) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology

6. 7.6 Causes of language change
1) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words
2) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created.
3)The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.
4) Another source of change which can be regarded as “economy of memory” results in grammar simplification.
5) Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change
Books for further reading:
1. Freeborn, D From Old English to Standard English Second edition. Beijing Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
The End