1. Viewing Nature: Cultural Understanding of Nature/Wilderness during the 19 th Century in Indian and Britain

2. Interaction and Perception Various human activities shape our view of and interactions with nature: –Aesthetics: culturally mediated through art, literature, poetry, which change over time Folk tales and mythology—ex. Woods in Grimm’s Fairy Tales Popular culture –Resource utilization/experience: depending on our location (urban, rural); occupation (farmer, student, etc) we might “consume” nature differently Extractive—farming, timber, fishing Leisure activities—tourism, hiking, diving

3. Perception is historically bounded As societies change, perception changes with them –In many places in the world, nature is no longer seen as divine (Gods of norse/vedic mythology) If the continuation of a specific activity is necessary and/or desirable, societies strive to create a system of sustained use –Might not produce a pristine balance, but “manages” an ecological system to create a favorable outcome for human activity (ex. Managed forests) –Historically emphasis has been on utility not preservation (ex. Hunting estates) –As social uses/values change, perception does as well –Is also bounded by class

4. Fox hunting in UK, then and now

5. Britain in the 19 th C. New wave of Romantic literature (Wordsworth, Sir Walter Scott) views nature as a respite from the modern world, “truer” to core values –also romanticizes “noble savage” –Aesthetics of parks and “managed wilderness” Utilitarian: woodlands continued to be used for timber, cleared for farmland –Desirability of keeping certain types of trees over others –Management of fauna for game preserves

6. Sir Edwin Landseer Famous for large paintings of historical figures, particularly Scottish Hunting prints of historical and contemporary works in which hunting is valorized as masculine, chivalrous, natural

7. Landseer, taking the deer

8. Perception of Wilderness in S. Asia Sacred—concept of sacred groves, association of particular tress with gods Aesthetic—the forest as a retreat from the world, place for meditation, sport, also associated with the “rasa” of love in classical painting and literature Utilitarian—deforestation occurs in waves all through history despite these associations, primarily for farmland; forests also home to many tribal groups such as Bhils, Gonds

9. Areas Inhabited by Tribal Groups, c. 19 th c Bhils Gonds santals Bedars Gujjars Bhattis

10. The Wilderness in the S. Asian imagination As a place associated with sages and mystics Constant occurence in epics as the site of adventure In love poetry as the place for amorous sports In oldest Vedic texts (c. 1500 BCE) contrast b/w “savage” and “civilized” stronger, but less so in later epics and folktales –Panchatantra and animal stories

11. The place of Hunting, 1200-1800 Hunting associated both as royal sport and as the domain of certain tribes, who have a more ambivalent place in Indian society For kings, opportunity to practice skills valued in warrior societies Large hunting preserves reserved for royal use Traveling for hunts also serves to allow ruler to inspect remote places, build ties with local communities, keep an eye on officials For tribal communities hunting is necessary for survival As meat-eaters, they are stigmatized by a largely vegetarian Hindu peasantry (notice difference created by social status in treatment of tribal v. warrior groups)

12. Hunting in Colonial period Colonial officials influenced by emerging ideas of “muscular christianity” also by its place as an elite sport in both British and Indian traditions Princely rulers see it as one of the last remaining privilege, also as a chance to meet as equals with officials Large hunting parties become popular by late 19 th C It’s use as a “protective” practice used as justificiation, although concerns about over-killing grow New forms of hunting evolve –Use of machans (stationary platforms)and beaters on unprecedented scale –Pig sticking