1. TAMING THE TAKS TEST

2. Objective Two Biology –All 6 Kingdoms (everything about them) –Prokaryote vs Eukaryote –Cell Parts and Functions –Taxonomy –ATP –Homeostasis –Osmosis –Body Systems and Functions –DNA (everything about it)

3. What Makes You Alive? Organized into cells. Grow and develop. Respond to the environment. Use energy Reproduce

4. Cells are organized into... Tissues, like types of cells Tissue layers form organs Organs that work together form organ systems Organ systems that work together make an organism

5. 6 Kingdoms – Largest groupings of living things Animalia Plantae Fungi ProtistaEubacteriaArchaebacteria

6. Prokaryotic Cells

7. Eukaryotic Cells

8. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryote One Cell No Nucleus No membrane bounded organelles HAS DNA 1 um in diameter ONLY BACTERIA (MONERANS) Eukaryote One or More Cells Contains a Nucleus Has membrane bounded organelles HAS DNA 5 um to 50-100um in diameter EVERYTHING ELSE protists, fungi, plants, animals ( you are an Eukaryote)

9. Cell PartFunction Cell membraneControls what enters and leaves the cell Cell WallProvide structure and support (plants) NucleusControl center of the cell ChloroplastSite of photosynthesis, makes chemical energy (plants) Endoplasmic ReticulumTransport system in cell RibosomeOrganelle makes proteins Golgi BodyOrganelle packages proteins VacuoleStores water and/or waste LysosomeBreaks down old cell parts CytoplasmJelly-like substance that holds organelles Nuclear MembraneControls what enters and leaves the nucleus NucleolusMakes ribosomes; located in the nucleus MitochondriaOrganelle for cellular respiration – provides energy

10. Plant Cells have, and Animal Cells don’t Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support Very large vacuoles to store extra water

11. This is a typical plant cell It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole. Why do plants need large vacuoles? ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.

12. 52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will — F be softer G grow at a faster rate H be thinner J photosynthesize at a faster rate These would indicate more water, not less

13. What an Animal Cell Looks Like Circled in shape NO CELL WALL NO CHLOROPLAST HAS LYSOSOMES HAS CENTRIOLES MITOCHONDRIA used for Cellular Respiration

14. Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration Plants go through Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Plants use chloroplast & sunlight for Photosynthesis Plants use mitochondria for Cellular Respiration Animals go through Cellular Respiration Animals use mitochondria

15. 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 This is photosynthesis Carbon + Water Produces Glucose & Oxygen Dioxide (sugar) ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ Reactants Products Sunlight

16. Plants do photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

17. Cellular Respiration C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy Glucose + Oxygen Carbon + Water + Energy (sugar) Dioxide ---------------------------- --------------------------------------------- ReactantsProducts ***All living things use mitochondria for cellular respiration***

18. They are OPPOSITES! Photosynthesis reactants are cellular respiration products…Cellular respiration reactants are photosynthesis products… DO YOU GET IT?

19. Let’s Describe All 6 Kingdoms!

20. Animal Kingdom Multicellular heterotrophic This kingdom includes all vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla) Insects, jellyfish, people are all animals

21. Kingdom Plantae Multicellular and autotrophic Means that all plants perform photosynthesis This kingdom includes mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, fruit trees, shrubs, most garden plants, most crops, wildflowers)

22. Kingdom Fungi Multicellular and some single-cells Most of these organisms are decomposers Includes mushrooms, yeasts and infections like athlete's foot

23. Protists Kingdom Protista: largest source of food and oxygen for the entire planet. Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates. Described as Unicellular Eukaryotes

24. 2 Kingdoms of Bacteria “Prokaryotes” Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes which are often decomposers Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes from extreme environments.

25. Is Bacteria Bad or Good? Bacteria is both…we know of the bad bacteria that causes Strepthroat…BUT what are some good bacteria… –Ecoli is found in your digestive system to help break down your food

26. 8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with — F growth G defense H digestion J respiration Kingdom Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members The best answer here is H, since digestion systems of mammals contain bacteria. Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses, not help them.

27. MAJOR WORDS YOU MUST KNOW! Prokaryote – one celled, bacteria, no nucleus Eukaryote – one or more cells, everything besides bacteria, true nucleus Decomposer – breaks down dead materials Autotrophic – makes its own food (plants) Heterotrophic – cannot make its own food, has to go get its food (animals)

28. Taxonomy-how to classify life

29. 49 Which of these classifications is most specific? A Family B Genus C Phylum D Order The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are: Kingdoms (5) Phylla Class Order Family Genus species

30. Binomial Classification Living things are given a two-part scientific name. This 2-part name is also the species name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized, and the second, which is the species, part of the scientific name is never capitalized. Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names. Your scientific name is Homo sapiens

31. 12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the — F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

32. Related in biological terms means family, genus, species. F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus Genus is always a capital letter, species is lower case. Most closely related would be in the same genus, Rana. ANSWER? H

33. What is ATP? Another word for Energy! Stands for Adenosine Triphosphate

34. Homeostasis This is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism. Control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained.

35. Homeostasis Examples What happens when you are hot? Why? What happens when you are cold? Why?

36. How does our CELLS go through Homeostasis? All Eukaryotic cells have Cell Membranes. A Cell Membrane’s job is to let nutrients in and out of the cell. This function is called Permeability. Basically you can say “it has the ability to be permanent”. Which means the cell membrane gets to decide if it wants the nutrient and does it want it to stay in forever.

37. Transporting into Cells - Passive movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion. The diffusion of water is called osmosis. Diffusion Osmosis is the diffusion of H 2 O

38. Osmosis Osmosis is the movement of WATER across a selective permeable membrane HypertonicHypotonicIsotonic

39. 34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg? F Coagulation G Sodium pump H Active transport J Osmosis Means to clump together – Incorrect Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy to do this since it kills the cell. Salt Water Urchin Egg This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin Egg)

40. Functions and Major Organs of the Body Systems

41. Skeletal System Bones are to –Support & structure –Make blood cells –Allow movement –Muscle attachments –Ligaments hold joints together

42. Muscular System 3 types of muscles –Smooth, involuntary –Striated, voluntary –Cardiac, heart muscle somewhat like both above Allow for movement Attached by tendons above and below joints

43. 17 Which structure in the upper arm is responsible for raising the lower arm? A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2. 4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:

44. Nervous System - 1 Consists of brain and spinal chord Voluntary, you control and choose Involuntary, allows parts to keep functioning without you knowing Nerve cells send and receive information..

45. Nervous System - 2 Nerve cells have 3 parts –Axon – Sends signal –Cell Body – controls cell functions –Dendrite – Receives signal from another –Synapse – space between cells

46. Nervous System - 3 Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain. This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.

47. Circulatory System - 1 This system helps to connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another. Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart. The heart pumps the blood

48. Circulatory System - 2 The top parts of the heart receive blood – Atrium The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricles Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.

49. A circulatory system B integumentary system C excretory system D endocrine system 29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the — Endocine system does not transport anything. So... Excretory system gets rid of waste CO 2 and H 2 O, not food. So.. Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So... The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is..

50. 25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO 2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the — A excretory system B immune system C respiratory system D integumentary system Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO 2

51. Immune (Lymphatic) System - 1 Your immune system protects you from infections and illness 1 st Order Non-specific includes skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears 2 nd Order includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.

52. Immune (Lymphatic) System - 2 Two main types of immunity ACTIVE – body makes its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby

53. 6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)? F Helper T cells G Liver cells H GABA-receptor cells J Red blood cells

54. Digestive System Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy. Digestion begins in the mouth, when you chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine.

55. Endocrine System The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, tissue function, and also plays a part in determining mood. hormonesmetabolism growth, development and pubertytissue functionmood

56. Integumentary System The Integumentary system has many functions: Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs Protects against invasion by infectious organisms Protects the body from dehydration Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature Helps dispose of waste materials Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold Stores water, fat, and vitamin D. This is the skin, and skin derivatives; (hair, nails, glands and receptors).

57. Excretory (Urinary) System The job of the excretory system is to remove various produced by the body. The removal is known as excreation. It is important for the body to remove these various waste, also known as toxic, because toxic build up can lead to servere death.

58. Reproductive System The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction. organsorganismreproduction A combination of genetic material between two individuals allows for the possibility of greater genetic fitness of the offspring.geneticfitnessoffspring

59. Respiratory System The respiratory system consists of the airways, the lungs, and the respiratory muscles that mediate the movement of air into and out of the body. lungs musclesair Within the alveolar system of the lungs, molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous environment and the blood.alveolarmoleculesoxygencarbon dioxide diffusionblood

60. What is DNA? Deoxyribonucleic acid –Carries all instructions for an organism P S P P S S S P AT CG TA Nitrogen bases A = T C = G What is the Ladder made of? Phosphates, Sugars, and Nitrogen bases

61. The Stuff of Life The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or twisted ladder The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine.

62. What is the DNA base pair rule? 24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strand will be — F 3' TCTACGTAG 5' G 5' CTACGTAGA 3' H 3' AGATGCATC 5' J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'

63. In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C 5' AGATGCATC 3‘ TCTACGTAG Base pair each letter by the above rule. So the answer is: F

64. 38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism? F Amount of adenine G Number of sugars H Sequence of nitrogen bases J Strength of hydrogen bonds This is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases, it can’t code for anything by itself. Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar, so this is not correct. Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.

65. Genetic Code All of the information to make a new organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell. Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Chromosomes contain genes each of which codes for a single protein. There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each chromosome.

66. DNA What is a Nucleotide? 3 parts one sugar one phosphate one nitrogen base (a,t,c,or g)

67. Replication “Copy Machine” The process of copying DNA is called Replication DNA is copied to DNA Happens in the nucleus of the cell!

68. Transcription... DNA is changed into RNA RNA does not know T (thymine), so RNA uses U (uracil) Transcription starts in the nucleus and then takes the information to the ribosome.

69. Translation... Code into words Changes RNA into Proteins (words) mRNA takes the code from the nucleus to the Ribosome where it pairs with Transfer RNA to put Amino Acids into chains called proteins.

70. What does this chart represent? It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be mRNA.

71. 53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are — A Q and TB R and S C Q and RD Q and S

72. To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding.  Between Q and T, only 4 levels are the same –  Between R and S only 4 levels are the same –  Between Q and S 5 of the levels are the same, but –  Between Q and R 5 of the levels are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer: Not A Not B Not D C

73. Replication, Transcription, and Translation

74. Showing Replication and How Mutations Start When the DNA strands are separated and copied, the altered base will pair with an incorrect base and cause a mutation. In the example below a "modified" G now pairs with T, instead of forming a normal pair with C.

75. When nitrogen bases don’t match with its partner, a MUTATION occurs! Mutation – a change in DNA sequence Different types of Mutations Point (Frameshift) – change with one codon (or all that follows) Translocation – DNA moved to a different place Inversion – DNA being placed backwards Duplication – extra codons being replicated Chromosomal – missing chromosome or having too many

76. Point and Frameshift Point Mutation A point mutation is a simple change in one base of the gene sequence. This is equivalent to changing one letter in a sentence, such as this example, where we change the 'c' in cat to an 'h': OriginalThe fat cat ate the wee rat. Point MutationThe fat hat ate the wee rat. Frame-shift mutation one or more bases are inserted or deleted adding or removing one letter changes each subsequent word. An example of a frame-shift mutation using our sample sentence is when the 't' from cat is removed, but we keep the original letter spacing: OriginalThe fat cat ate the wee rat. Frame ShiftThe fat caa tet hew eer at.

77. Inversion Inversion In an inversion mutation, an entire section of DNA is reversed. A small inversion may involve only a few bases within a gene, while longer inversions involve large regions of a chromosome containing several genes. OriginalThe fat cat ate the wee rat. InversionThe fat tar eew eht eta tac.

78. YOUR TURN! Original strand of DNA TACGTTAACGGC

79. What is a Karyotype Chromosomes paired up to aligned from longest to shortest Chromosome pair 1 – 22 are autosomes – normal body Chromosome pair 23 are somatic - sex chromosomes – determines the sex of the baby

80. Examples of Karyotypes

81. Or you could see it like this

82. Can you determine the sex of this person?

83. What is wrong with this Karyotype?

85. What is Next? Every cell in your body divides or reproduces. Inside of each cell is DNA that is being replicated, transcribed, and translated to give your body its characteristics that make you different from everyone else. How do cells divide or reproduce?

86. Cell Division or Reproduction Mitosis - produces 2 daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell, known as diploid. This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue. http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm Meiosis - produces 4 daughter cells that have 1/2 the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid. sexually http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm

87. Cell Reproduction The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of cell division and Interphase is the process of growing and functioning. During mitosis the cell separates into two new identical sister cells.

88. Cell Cycle http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm

89. DRAW THIS MitosisMeiosis 46 23 2 daughter cells are identical to parent cells Diploid = same # of chromosomes Normal body cells – repair and grow 4 daughter cells that are haploid to the parents Sex cells – gametes (sperm and egg)

90. 26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis? F 11 G 19 H 38 J 76 Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is H

91. When cells reproduce out of control Tumors are formed. This is what is called cancer. It may or may not be malignant (kind that spreads).

92. Genetics – How traits are inherited Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel, he experimented with pea plants. Do you look like mom, dad, or grandparents?

93. Important Genetic Vocabulary Dominant – gene that will be expressed, Capital letter (B=brown) Recessive – gene that is hidden unless it is homozygous, Lowercase letter (b=blonde) Heterozygous – two different alleles, dominant will take over (Bb=brown will take over) Homozygous – two identical alleles (BB=brown or bb=blonde)

94. Punnett Squares D D d Dd Dd d d D Dd Dd d dd dd D d D DD Dd d Dd dd D d D DD Dd Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive Heterzygous & Heterozygous Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant

95. Phenotype is what you see Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait. How do you know the phenotype? LOOK!!

96. Genotype – actual combination of alleles Only 3 possibilities BB = Homozygous Dominant Bb = Heterozygous bb = Homozygous recessive Must look at inheritance pattern to find out.

97. Let’s Do One Together B = brown eyes b = blue eyes A homozygous brown eyed man mated with a homozygous blue eyed woman, what will their offspring look like? Genotype BB =_____ Bb = _____ bb = _____ Phenotype Brown eyed _____ Blue eyed _____

98. Now It’s Your Turn R = red petals r = white petals Gregor Mendel mated two flowers. A heterozygous red flower with a white flower. What will the genotypes and phenotypes be?

99. Did you get it Right? Genotypes RR = 0/4 or 0% Rr = 2/4 or 50% rr = 2/4 or 50% Phenotypes Red petals = 2/4 or 50% White petals = 2/4 or 50% You don’t have to put this, just make sure you know

100. Pedigree shows the Family Tree Colorblindness Inheritance Parents: Father has; Mother is a Carrier