1. Adaptive Imaging Preliminary: Speckle Correlation Analysis

2. Speckle Formation Speckle results from coherent interference of un- resolvable objects. It depends on both the frequency and the distance. sample volume transducer

3. Speckle Second-Order Statistics The auto-covariance function of the received phase-sensitive signals (i.e., before envelope detection) is simply the convolution of the system’s point spread function if the insonified region is –macroscopically slow-varying. –microscopically un-correlated.

4. Speckle Second-Order Statistics The shape of a speckle spot (assuming fully developed) is simply determined by the shape of the point spread function. The higher the spatial resolution, the finer the speckle pattern, and vice versa.

5. Speckle Statistics The above statements do not hold if the object has structures compared to or larger than the ultrasonic wavelength. Rician distribution is often used for more general scatterer distribution. Rayleigh distribution is a special case of Rician distribution.

6. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem A theorem originally developed in statistical optics. It describes the second-order statistics of the field produced by an in-coherent source. The insonification of diffuse scatterers is assumed in-coherent. It is different from the aforementioned lateral displacement.

7. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem The theorem describes the spatial covariance of signals received at two different points in space. For a point target, the correlation of the two signals should simply be 1. For speckle, correlation decreases since the received signal changes.

8. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem The theorem assumes that the target is microscopically un-correlated. The spatial covariance function is the Fourier transform of the radiation pattern at the point of interest.

9. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem radiation pattern correlation

10. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem The theorem states that the correlation coefficient decreases from 1 to 0 as the distance increases from 0 to full aperture size. The correlation is independent of the frequency, aperture size, …etc.

11. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem In the presence of tissue inhomogeneities, the covariance function is narrower since the radiation pattern is wider. The decrease in correlation results in lower accuracy in estimation if signals from different channels are used.

12. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem distance correlation

13. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem Channel Time (Range) RF Signals

14. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem (Focal length 60mm vs. 90mm)

15. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem (16 Elements vs. 31 Elements)

16. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem (2.5MHz vs. 3.5MHz)

17. van Cittert-Zernike Theorem (with Aberrations)

18. Lateral Speckle Correlation correlation coefficient displacement L/2

19. Lateral Speckle Correlation Assuming the target is at focus, the correlation roughly decreases linearly as the lateral displacement increases. The correlation becomes zero when the displacement is about half the aperture size. Correlation may decrease in the presence of non-ideal beam formation.

20. Lateral Speckle Correlation 14.4 mm Array

21. Lateral Speckle Correlation

24. Lateral Speckle Correlation: Implications on Spatial Compounding

25. Speckle Tracking Estimation of displacement is essential in many imaging areas such as Doppler imaging and elasticity imaging. Speckle targets, which generally are not as ideal as points targets, must be used in many clinical situations.

26. Speckle Tracking From previous analysis on speckle analysis, we found the local speckle patterns simply translate assuming the displacement is small. Therefore, speckle patterns obtained at two instances are highly correlated and can be used to estimate 2D displacements.

27. Speckle Tracking Displacements can also be found using phase changes (similar to the conventional Doppler technique). Alternatively, displacements in space can be estimated by using the linear phase shifts in the spatial frequency domain.

28. Speckle Tracking Tracking of the speckle pattern can be used for 2D blood flow imaging. Conventional Doppler imaging can only track axial motion. Techniques using phase information are still inherently limited by the nature of Doppler shifts.

29. Adaptive Imaging Methods: Correlation-Based Approach

30. Sound Velocity Inhomogeneities transducer array v1 v2 v3 point of interest body wallviscera

31. Sound Velocity Inhomogeneities Velocity (m/sec) water 1484 blood 1550 myocardium 1550 fat 1450 liver 1570 kidney 1560

32. Sound Velocity Inhomogeneities Sound velocity variations result in arrival time errors. Most imaging systems assume a constant sound velocity. Therefore, sound velocity variations produce beam formation errors. The beam formation errors are body type dependent.

33. Sound Velocity Inhomogeneities Due to beam formation errors, mainlobe may be wider and sidelobes may be higher. Both spatial and contrast resolution are affected. no errorswith errors

34. Near Field Assumption Assuming the effects of sound velocity inhomogeneities can be modeled as a phase screen at the face of the transducer, beam formation errors can be reduced by correcting the delays between channels. beam formation correction geometric delay velocity variations aligned

35. Correlation-Based Aberration Correction No Focusing

36. Correlation-Based Aberration Correction Transmit Focusing Only

37. Correlation-Based Aberration Correction Transmit and Receive Focusing

38. Correlation-Based Aberration Correction Wire: Before CorrectionWire: After Correction

39. Correlation-Based Aberration Correction Diffuse Scatterers: BeforeDiffuse Scatterers: After

40. Correlation Based Method Time delay (phase) errors are found by finding the peak of the cross correlation function. It is applicable to both point and diffuse targets.

41. Correlation Based Method The relative time delays between adjacent channels need to be un-wrapped. Estimation errors may propagate.

42. Correlation Based Method Two assumptions for diffuse scatterers: –spatial white noise. –high correlation (van Cittert-Zernike theorem). filtercorrelator xx

43. Correlation Based Method Correlation using signals from diffuse scatterers under-estimates the phase errors. The larger the phase errors, the more severe the underestimation. Iteration is necessary (a stable process).

44. Alternative Methods Correlation based method is equivalent to minimizing the l2 norm. Some alternative methods minimize the l1 norm. Correlation based method is equivalent to a maximum brightness technique.

45. Baseband Method The formulation is very similar to the correlation technique used in Color Doppler.

46. Baseband Method CORDIC I Q I Q acc. Q sign bitsign control

47. One-Dimensional Correction: Problems Sound velocity inhomogeneities are not restricted to the array direction. Therefore, two- dimensional correction is necessary in most cases. The near field model may not be correct in some cases.

48. One-Dimensional Correction: Problems

50. Two-Dimensional Correction Using 1D arrays, time delay errors can only be corrected along the array direction. The signal received by each channel of a 1D array is an average signal. Hence, estimation accuracy may be reduced if the elevational height is large. 2D correction is necessary.

51. Two-Dimensional Correction Each array element has four adjacent elements. The correlation path between two array elements can be arbitrary. The phase error between any two elements should be independent of the correlation path.

52. Full 2D Correction (1,1)(1,3)(1,2)corr (3,1)(3,3)(3,2)corr (2,1)(2,3)(2,2)corr

53. Row-Sum 2D Correction (1,1)(1,3)(1,2)corr (3,1)(3,3)(3,2)corr (2,1)(2,3)(2,2)corr

54. Correlation Based Method: Misc. Signals from each channel can be correlated to the beam sum. Limited human studies have shown its efficacy, but the performance is not consistent clinically. 2D arrays are required to improve the 3D resolution.

55. Displaced Phase Screen Model Sound velocity inhomogeneities may be modeled as a phase screen at some distance from the transducer to account for the distributed velocity variations. The displaced phase screen not only produces time delay errors, it also distorts ultrasonic wavefronts.

56. Displaced Phase Screen Model Received signals need to be “back-propagated” to an “optimal” distance by using the angular spectrum method. The “optimal” distance is determined by using a similarity factor. phase screen

57. Displaced Phase Screen Model

58. TSC + BP Time-shift compensation with back-propagation

62. Abdominal Wall Measurements

65. Displaced Phase Screen Model After the signals are back-propagated, correlation technique is then used to find errors in arrival time. It is extremely computationally extensive, almost impossible to implement in real-time using current technologies.

66. Wavefront Distortion Measurements on abdominal walls, breasts and chest walls have shown two- dimensional distortion. The distortion includes time delay errors and amplitude errors (resulting from wavefront distortion).

67. Phase Conjugation phase screen at face of transducer displaced phase screen ff phase

68. Phase Conjugation

69. No aberration At 0 mm At 60 mm At 40 mm At 20 mm

70. Phase Conjugation Simple time delays result in linear phase shift in the frequency domain. Displaced phase screens result in wavefront distortion, which can be characterized by non-linear phase shift in the frequency domain.

71. Phase Conjugation Non-linear phase shift can be corrected by dividing the spectrum into sub-bands and correct for “time delays” individually. In the limit when each sub-band is infinitesimally small, it is essentially a phase conjugation technique.

72. End 4/13/2005

73. Some of the Recent Developments

74. Real-Time In Vivo Imaging[15]

75. Real-Time In Vivo Imaging

79. Distribution of time delay corrections

80. Clinical Imaging Using 1-D Array [16]

81. Clinical Imaging Using 1-D Array Before CorrectionAfter Correction

82. Clinical Imaging Using 1-D Array Before CorrectionAfter Correction

83. Clinical Imaging Using 1-D Array Channel DataComplex Scattering Structures

84. Real Time Adaptive Imaging with 1.75D, High Frequency Arrays [17] 1D and 2D Least Squares Estimation

85. Real Time Adaptive Imaging with 1.75D, High Frequency Arrays Before Correction After Correction

86. Real Time Adaptive Imaging with 1.75D, High Frequency Arrays Before Correction After Correction

87. Real Time Adaptive Imaging with 1.75D, High Frequency Arrays Original1 iteration4 iterations

88. Real Time Adaptive Imaging with 1.75D, High Frequency Arrays OriginalReceive Only

89. 2D Correction Using 1.75d Array On Breast Microcalcifications [18]

90. 2D Correction Using 1.75d Array On Breast Microcalcifications

91. (also with a 60% brightness improvement)

92. 2D Correction Using 1.75d Array On Breast Microcalcifications

93. (a)1D (b)1D with correction (c)1.75D (d)1.75D with correction

94. Adaptive Imaging Methods: Aperture Domain Processing Parallel Adaptive Receive Compensation Algorithm

95. Single Transmit Imaging Fixed direction transmit, all direction receive

96. Measuring Source Profile

97. Removing Focusing Errors

98. Focusing Errors No Aberrations With Aberrations

99. Single Transmit Imaging No Aberrations With Aberrations

100. PARCA No Correction With Correction

101. Simplifications: 1. DFT vs. Single Transmit Imaging 2. Weighting vs. Complex Computations

102. DFT vs. Single Transmit Imaging Single Transmit ImagingDFT

103. Adaptive Weighting

105. Frequency Domain Interpretation of the Aperture Data Aberrated Speckle Coherent Incoherent *P.-C. Li and M.-L. Li, “Adaptive Imaging Using the Generalized Coherence Factor”, IEEE UFFC, Feb., 2003.

106. Coherence Factor (CF) A quantitative measure of coherence of the received array signals. Coherent sum (DC) Total energy (times N) N: the number of array channels used in beam sum C(i,t) : the received signal of channel i The larger, the better?

107. Determination of the Optimal Receive Aperture Size Classify “object types” Unwanted Sidelobes Object of Interest Enhance Optimize the receive aperture size Suppress

108. Experimental Results: Tissue Mimicking Phantoms Range Azimuth Dynamic range: 60 dB –40  40  0 XX XX Original Adaptive Receive Aperture 28.6 mm 96.2 mm