2. Ch. 2: Behavioral Learning Theory Two Theoretical Models: Classical Conditioning –Environmental stimulus  or ≠  Response –Involuntary Behavior: Limited to 2 categories of responses Operant Conditioning –A(ntecedent/s) + B(ehavior/s) + C(onsequence/s) –“Operants” or Voluntary Behavior

3. Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning Theory: Behavior change (new responses) results from the co-occurrence to of 2 stimuli at approximately the same time –Contiguity Principle: Pairings –Learning new behaviors –Involuntary behavior: Reflexive; Affective

4. Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning The Model: US  UR::CS  CR US  UR: Environment elicits response CS/US  UR: Pairing stimuli  response CS  CR: Removal of US results in neutral stimulus paired with conditioned response

5. Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning 2 Principles that explain expanded learning: Generalization –Responding to stimuli SIMILAR to that involved in learning a new response, not involved in the initial learning Extinction –Repeated absence of association w/ an US resulting in decrease & eventual disappearance of a CR

6. Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning Basic Principle: A response followed by a reinforcing stimulus (a reinforcer) is more likely to occur again, under similar circumstances 2 Necessary Conditions: Learners must make a response Reinforces must be “contingent”

7. Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning Reinforcement –Any consequence following a behavior that increases likelihood that behavior will recur or increase in frequency Punishment Any consequence following a behavior that decreases likelihood that behavior will recur, decreases in frequency or suppresses behavior

8. Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers Positive vs Negative Reinforcement Timing in Reinforcement Motivation in Reinforcement

9. Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom Basic needs Physiological: food; water; warmth; oxygen –Sustains life; necessary for life Physical contacts: Affection, etc –Reflects biological needs Secondary Reinforcers in the classroom: –Learned behaviors that must be “crafted”

10. Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers –Primary: Satisfies basic needs –Secondary: Reinforcing through association over time (w/o directly satisfying needs)

11. Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom Positive vs Negative Reinforcement –Probability of behavior increasing as result of reinforcement, period Positive: Stimulus presented AFTER behavior Negative: Stimulus removed as RESULT of behavior

12. Principles of behavior modification From m s w

13. What is behavior modification? There are many different methods and philosophies of dealing with “inappropriate,” “abnormal,” or “undesirable” behavior. Behavior modification is one of these. It is different from other methods and philosophies in that it focuses only on observable, describable, and measurable behaviors, as opposed,

14. behaviorist principles based on behaviorist principles, operates on the following tenets: 1) Behavior is controlled by antecedents, events which occur before a behavior is exhibited, and 2) By consequences, that is, events which occur after a behavior is exhibited. 3) These antecedents and consequences can be changed in order to increase or decrease the chance that a given behavior will continue to be exhibited. 4) Behavior, appropriate as well as inappropriate, is learned.

15. What are the aims of behavior modification? Behavior modification techniques aim to manipulate the antecedents and consequences of behavior so that the likelihood of appropriate behavior is increased and inappropriate behavior is decreased. Proactive behavior modification, interventions which avoid the utilization of aversive consequences, also involves teaching new and more appropriate skills (positive programming). The reason for this is the belief that all behavior is learned. If you are trying to reduce an inappropriate behavior, an appropriate behavior must be taught as an alternative.

16. When should behavior modification techniques be implemented? Before introducing an intervention, several things must take place. First, it must be established that there is, condition, language difficulties, or cultural differences, must be investigated. Additionally, inputfrom other staff and from parents is necessary in establishing which behavior is problematic. Second, a functional analysis needs to be completed in order to establish which antecedents and consequences are supporting the behavior (or which antecedents and consequences are needed in the case of promoting behavior). Third, it must be determined whether the target behavior is of priority to justify intervention. For example, while pencil tapping may be an annoying behavior, it probably does not warrant implementation of a token economy. In deciding whether a behavior necessitates intervention, you will need to look at its frequency (how often it occurs as compared to peers), the intensity at which the behavior is exhibited, and the rate at which the student is able to learn new behaviors. After these steps have been taken and it is agreed that a problem which warrants intervention does exist, behavior modification can be implemented.

17. What are examples of behavior modification interventions? Examples of behavior modification which can be used to increase behavior are: praise and approval, modeling, positive programming, shaping, token economy, self-monitoring, and shaping. Methods which can be used to decrease behavior are: extinction, reinforcing incompatible behavior, relaxation, self- monitoring, and shaping

18. Principles of Behavior Modification Breaking old habits and starting new ones is hard at any age, but becomes especially harder as the years pass. Habits are conditioned behaviors that have evolved over time. The principles of behavior modification use this conditioning process to develop new habits and eliminate old ones. Positive and negative reinforcements are the tools used throughout this process.

19. Identification –Behavior modification principles are based on a branch of psychology known as behavioral theory. Behavior--whether good of bad--is viewed as a conditioned habit. The process of behavior change is a matter of reconditioning old and new behaviors. B.F. Skinner--an American psychologist--is credited with first developing this practice in the mid 1900s. His theory of operant conditioning formed the basis for the principles behind the behavior modification approach. This approach is useful for promoting behavior change in children, and has been used to treat individuals with anxiety disorders and obsessive compulsive disorder.

20. New Behaviors –Part of behavioral conditioning involves the circumstances leading up to a behavior. These circumstances set the stage for the behavior to take place. The cueing principle makes use of these pre- conditions as a way to develop new behaviors. Once the desired behavior is carried out, positive reinforcement, or a reward is given. The use of reward works to shape a person's motivations toward the desired behavior. For larger tasks, or goals, the principle of successive approximation can be used to reward a person as he progresses through each successive step toward a goal.

21. Old Behaviors –When developing a new behavior, or habit, eliminating undesirable behaviors becomes part of the change process. Behavior modification makes use of negative reinforcement techniques to phase out undesirable behaviors. The extinction principle works by gradually removing whatever positive reinforcements are attached to an undesirable behavior. Another technique--called the satiation principle--encourages the individual to indulge in the undesired behavior until she loses interest. A more direct form of negative reinforcement is based on the punishment principle where the undesired behavior is paired with an unfavorable stimulus.

22. Emotional Responses –The process used in modifying an emotional behavior is made up of similar techniques that involve positive and negative reinforcement. The avoidance principle introduces a negative reinforcement prior to an undesirable behavior, like an angry outburst. The fear reduction principle is used to eliminate an undesirable fear response by desensitizing a person to the feared event, or object. This is done by gradually exposing the person to the situation in steps, until he no longer experiences feelings of fear.

23. Maintenance –An important part of developing a new behavior is maintaining a new routine until it becomes a regular part of a person's lifestyle. The substitution principle uses positive reinforcements to maintain a new behavior by substituting a more powerful reward in the place of the reward being used. This is done by presenting the new reward directly after the old reward is given. In order to further strengthen a new behavior, the principle of decreasing reinforcement uses fewer positive reinforcements spaced out in longer intervals. This encourages a person to work harder and longer for the same reward.

24. Motivation Individual Behavior and Performance Model of Individual Behavior RolePerceptions SituationalContingencies Ability

25. O.B. Mod Application Model Identify Behaviors for Change Measure Baseline frequency of response Analyze Functional consequences Intervene Evaluate For performance improvement See Learning Module A

26. Modifying On-the-Job Behavior Step 1 Identify target behavior Step 2 Perform an A B C functional analysis Step 3 Arrange antecedents Provide supportive and appropriately scheduled consequences Step 4 Evaluate results

27. A Social Learning Model for Self- Management Person (Psychological Self) Symbolic coding Rehearsal Self-talk Behavior Behavior changes needed for self- improvement Situational Cues Reminders & attention focusers Self-observation data Avoidance of negative cues Seeking of positive cues Personal goal-setting Self contracts Consequences Self-reinforcement/ self-punishment Building activities into the task that are naturally rewarding Reinforcement from relevant others

28. 3-28 A Social Learning Model of Self-Management Figure 3-3

29. ABC’s to Behavior Management Antecedent Behavior Consequences

30. Defining Behavior Describe behavior objectively and precisely (not: “he irritates me”) Can you observe the behavior when it begins and when it stops –can you count the number of occurrences each day –can you measure the duration of the behavior Can you observe what happens just before and just after it occurs

31. Behavior Management Techniques Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Extinction Response Cost Punishment Proximity Control Decontamination

32. Positive Reinforcement The positive reinforcement must be rewarding to the student The reinforcers must be contingent on the behavior you want to increase The reinforcers should be delivered immediately Provide appropriate units of rewards for the expected unit of behavior

33. Negative Reinforcement Definition: reinforcing a behavior by removing or preventing something unpleasant - allows the individual to escape or avoid a negative consequence Not recommended as a prominent part of classroom management –negative reinforcement relies on the presence or threat of negative consequences –deliberate negative reinforcement sets the stage for coercion/intimidation

34. Extinction To eliminate a behavior - you eliminate its reinforcement, the behavior no longer produces the desired effect (positive or negative) Disadvantages: slow process and when extinction procedures are first implemented, the behavior will likely become worse before better

35. Response Cost The behavior “costs” something by withholding or withdrawing a positive reinforcer contingent on a specific misbehavior Example: students receive 10 tokens at the beginning of class, every time a problem behavior occurs, the teacher gets 1 token back. The tokens can be exchanged at the end of the day or class for free time.

36. Decontamination Preventive action by inspecting classroom for two types of objects –Distractors: entice students to engage in off- task behaviors (e.g. toys, slide projectors, hazards: exposed wires, broken windows –Potential Weapons: letter openers, knives, broom handle, hammer and yard stick

37. Proximity Control Visual - visually monitor student activity from any position in the classroom Physical - teacher positions her/himself close to each student to inhibit antecedent

38. Focusing on the “Self” Self –core of one’s conscious existence Self-concept –a person’s self-perception as a physical, social, spiritual being.

39. 5-39 Focusing on the “Self” Cognitions –a person’s knowledge, opinions, or beliefs. Self-esteem –Belief about one’s own self worth based on an overall self-evaluation.

40. 5-40 An OB Model for Studying Individual Differences Figure 5-1

41. Self Management Behavioral Definition: help the student choose a behavior to monitor Teach the student to record behavior –Event recording –Permanent Product recording Teach the student how to plot the data Teach the student how to apply self- reinforcement Use contracts to provide structure

42. Time Management Techniques Self-Management –Time analysis –Goal setting –Prioritization –Delegation –Action