1. Land Use: Forests and Grasslands

2. Fig. 10-4, p. 193 Support energy flow and chemical cycling Reduce soil erosion Absorb and release water Purify water and air Influence local and regional climate Store atmospheric carbon Provide numerous wildlife habitats Forests Natural Capital Fuelwood Lumber Pulp to make paper Mining Livestock grazing Recreation Jobs Economic Services Ecological Services

3. Types of Forests  Old-growth forest: uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years. 22% of world’s forest. 22% of world’s forest. Hosts many species with specialized niches. Hosts many species with specialized niches. Russia, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia & Papau New Guinea contain ¾ of the worlds remaining old growth forests Russia, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia & Papau New Guinea contain ¾ of the worlds remaining old growth forests

4. Types of Forests  Second-growth forest: a stand of trees resulting from secondary succession. (63% of worlds forests)  Tree plantation: planted stands of a particular tree species. (5% of worlds forests) Produce about ¼ of worlds commercial wood Produce about ¼ of worlds commercial wood China, Russia, USA, India & Japan contain 2/3 of the worlds tree farms China, Russia, USA, India & Japan contain 2/3 of the worlds tree farms China has almost no original forest left it is all second or plantations China has almost no original forest left it is all second or plantations

5. Global Outlook: Extent of Deforestation  Human activities have reduced the earth’s forest cover by as much as half.  Losses are concentrated in developing countries. Figure 10-7

6. Deforestation  If current deforestation rates continue, it is estimated that 40% of the worlds remaining forests will have been logged or converted to other uses (human expansion) within 2 decades  Some temperate forests in North America, Europe and China have seen an increase in area since 1990’s In the USA we are now seeing mor wood grown every year than is cut In the USA we are now seeing mor wood grown every year than is cut  Some tropical rain forests have seen increasing secondary and tree plantations

7. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis  Almost half the people in the developing world face a shortage of fuelwood and charcoal.  This is increasing cutting of forests In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested. In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested. MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal from spent sugarcane. MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal from spent sugarcane.

8.  Cutting forests can also lead to soil erosion and sediment runoff into the water supply  Forests can also be damaged by fire, pests and disease (see supplement 15 in back of book)

9. Types and Effects of Forest Fires  Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or harm forests.  Surface Fires Burn away flammable ground material. Burn away flammable ground material. Release valuable mineral/nutrients into soil, control pathogens and insects, stimulate germination, help prevent more destructive fires. Release valuable mineral/nutrients into soil, control pathogens and insects, stimulate germination, help prevent more destructive fires.  Crown Fires Extremely hot and rapid. Destroy most vegetation, Extremely hot and rapid. Destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife and increase soil erosion.  Ground Fires Surface fires that are burning underground. Can smolder for days or weeks. They are difficult to detect and extinguish. Surface fires that are burning underground. Can smolder for days or weeks. They are difficult to detect and extinguish. Figure 10-13

10. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management  To reduce fire damage: Set controlled surface fires. Set controlled surface fires. Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don’t threaten life and property. Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don’t threaten life and property. Clear small areas around property subject to fire. Clear small areas around property subject to fire.  Alternative: use goats to eat underbrush!  Because of “Smokey the Bear” most people think all forest fires are bad.

11. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management  In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy Forest Restoration Act: Allows timber companies to cut medium and large trees in 71% of the national forests. Allows timber companies to cut medium and large trees in 71% of the national forests. In return, must clear away smaller, more fire- prone trees and underbrush. In return, must clear away smaller, more fire- prone trees and underbrush. Some forest scientists believe this could increase severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash. Some forest scientists believe this could increase severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash.

12. Harvesting Trees  Building roads into previously inaccessible forests paves the way for fragmentation (breaking up habitat), destruction, and degradation (damaging habitat). Figure 10-8

13. Harvesting Trees  Trees can be harvested individually from diverse forests (selective cutting), an entire forest can be cut down (clear cutting), or portions of the forest is harvested (e.g. strip cutting). Figure 10-9

14. Harvesting Trees Effects of clear-cutting in the state of Washington, U.S. Figures 10-10 and 10-11

15. Solutions  We can use forests more sustainably by emphasizing: Economic value of ecological services. Economic value of ecological services. Harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished. Harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished. Protecting old-growth and vulnerable areas. Protecting old-growth and vulnerable areas. Figure 10-12

16. Controversy over Logging in U.S. National Forests  There has been an ongoing debate over whether U.S. national forests should be primarily for: Timber. Timber. Ecological services. Ecological services. Recreation. Recreation. Mix of these uses. Mix of these uses. Figure 10-14

17. Solutions: Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees  Tree harvesting can be reduced by wasting less wood and making paper and charcoal fuel from fibers that do not come from trees. Kenaf is a promising plant for paper production. Kenaf is a promising plant for paper production. Figure 10-15

18. American Forests in a Globalized Economy  Timber from tree plantations in temperate and tropical countries is decreasing the need for timber production in the U.S. This could help preserve the biodiversity in the U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut old- growth and second-growth forests. This could help preserve the biodiversity in the U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut old- growth and second-growth forests. This may lead to private land owners to sell less profitable land to developers. This may lead to private land owners to sell less profitable land to developers. Forest management policy will play a key role. Forest management policy will play a key role.

19. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION  Large areas of ecologically and economically important tropical forests are being cleared and degraded at a fast rate. Figure 10-16

20. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION  At least half of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests.  Large areas of tropical forest are burned to make way for cattle ranches and crops. Figure 10-17

21.  It is estimated that ½ of the worlds remaining TRF’s could be lost or degraded in as few as 35 years  Less than 5% of the worlds TRF’s are managed sustainably  Remember, TRF soil is low in nutrients so if the forest is removed for agriculture purposes, the soil can’t support many crops for many years  Many TRF’s are being turned into trpical grasslands (savannas)

22. Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?  About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Not to mention the global carbon cycle and global warming

23. Causes of Tropical Deforestation and Degradation  Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected primary and secondary causes. Figure 10-19

24. Fig. 10-20, p. 207 Protect most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation easements Certify sustainably grown timber Reduce illegal cutting Reduce poverty Slow population growth Restoration Reforestation Rehabilitation of degraded areas Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared areas Solutions Sustaining Tropical Forests Prevention

25. How can we help the worlds forests?  Have community forest projects (ex. next slide) to help replant forests  Reduce our use of wood products, find alternative sources (ex. new ways to make paper, solar ovens instead of charcoal, more efficient/less polluting wood stoves)  Don’t waste as many wood products It is estimated that 60% of wood products used in the USA are wasted It is estimated that 60% of wood products used in the USA are wasted Just think of all of the paper we used and disposed of today (including tissues, paper towels, etc) Just think of all of the paper we used and disposed of today (including tissues, paper towels, etc)

26. Kenya’s Green Belt Movement: Individuals Matter  Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement.  The main goal is to organize poor women to plant (for fuelwood) and protect millions of trees.  In 2004, awarded Nobel peace prize. Figure 10-10A

27. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS  Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed grasslands (pastures).  We can sustain rangeland productivity by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.

28. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS  Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed carrying capacity of a grassland area.  This can lead to increased soil erosion and invading (not invasive) species Figure 10-21

29. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS  Example of restored area along the San Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of banning grazing and off-road vehicles. Figure 10-22

30. Suggestions  Rotational grazing  Ban grazing near rivers and streams  Replanting native grasses and removing “invader” species like mesquite, cacti and sagebrush (which livestock don’t eat anyway) Use herbicides (may lead to other problems) Use herbicides (may lead to other problems) Let livestock trample them Let livestock trample them Manually remove Manually remove  Apply fertilizers (may lead to other problems)

31. NATIONAL PARKS  Countries have established more than 1,100 national parks, but most are threatened by human activities. Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and other natural resources. Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and other natural resources. Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete natural resources. Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete natural resources. Many are too small to sustain large-animal species. Many are too small to sustain large-animal species. Many suffer from invasive species. Many suffer from invasive species.

32. NATURE RESERVES  Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.  Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness.

33. NATURE RESERVES  Ecologists call for protecting more land to help sustain biodiversity, but powerful economic and political interests oppose doing this. Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected. Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected. Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human activities. Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human activities. Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of earth’s land area representing multiple examples of all biomes. Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of earth’s land area representing multiple examples of all biomes.

34. NATURE RESERVES  A model biosphere reserve that contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that people can use for multiple use. Figure 10-25

35. NATURE RESERVES  Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can be used to understand and manage ecosystems. Identify areas to establish and connect nature reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation. Identify areas to establish and connect nature reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation. Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact. Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact.

36. NATURE RESERVES  We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on protecting global hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.  Conservation biologists are helping people in communities find ways to sustain local biodiversity while providing local economic income.

37.  34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and endangered centers of biodiversity. Figure 10-26

38. ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION  Restoration: trying to return to a condition as similar as possible to original state.  Rehabilitation: attempting to turn a degraded ecosystem back to being functional.  Replacement: replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.  Creating artificial ecosystems: such as artificial wetlands for flood reduction and sewage treatment.