1. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Slides prepared by JoNell Strough, Ph.D. & Philip Lemaster, M.A. West Virginia University Chapter 9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups

2. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

3. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Multimedia Directory Slide 14Stanford Prison Experiment Video

4. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. What Is a Group? Two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other.

5. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Why Do People Join Groups? Groups have a number of other benefits: – Important source of information: Help us resolve ambiguity in the social world – Important aspect of identity: Help us define who we are Help us feel distinct from other groups – Establishment of social norms

6. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Groups have a number of benefits. They are an important part of our identity, helping us define who we are, and are a source of social norms, the explicit or implicitrules defining what is acceptable behavior. Source: Monkey Business/Fotolia

7. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Composition and Functions of Groups Most groups have two to six members – Due in part to our definition of groups as involving interaction between members – If groups become too large, one had difficulty interacting with all members Group members tend to be similar – Age, sex, beliefs, and opinions

8. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Composition and Functions of Groups There are two reasons for the homogeneity of groups: 1.Groups tend to attract people who are already similar before they join 2.Groups tend to operate in ways that encourage similarity in members

9. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Norms Social Roles – Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave

10. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Norms Potential costs to social roles If enmeshed in a role, individual identities and personalities can get lost. Social Roles Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave in that group.

11. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Stanford Prison Study Zimbardo and colleagues randomly assigned male volunteers to play roles for two weeks as: – Prisoners – Guards Students quickly assumed these roles. – Researchers had to end the experiment after only six days.

12. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues randomly assigned students to play the role of prisoner or guard in a mock prison. The students assumed these roles all too well. Source: Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc.

13. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Stanford Prison Study Guards – Abusive – Verbally harassed, humiliated prisoners Prisoners – Passive – Helpless – Withdrawn

14. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Stanford Prison Experiment Video Click on the screenshot to watch Dr. Zimbardo discuss how behavior was shaped by playing the roles of prisoner or guard in his famous experiment. Back to Directory

15. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prison Abuse at Abu Ghraib In 2004, it came to light that American military guards had routinely abused prisoners in Abu Ghraib, a prison in Iraq. – Physical beatings, sexual abuse, and psychological humiliation

16. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prison Abuse at Abu Ghraib The American public was shocked by pictures of U. S. soldiers smiling as they stood in front of naked Iraqi prisoners who had been beaten A few bad apples happen to end up in the unit guarding the prisoners? – “What's bad is the barrel” (Zimbardo)

17. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social roles can be very helpful, because people know what to expect from each other. However, people can get too far into a role that their personal identities and personalities get lost, sometimes with tragic consequences. Some people think that the abuse at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq was due to soldiers getting too far into their roles as prison guards. Source: The Washington Post/ EPA/Newscom

18. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prison Abuse at Abu Ghraib Military guards at Abu Ghraib – Tremendous stress – Little supervision – Set their own rules for interrogation Power of the social situation of war

19. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender Roles All societies have expectations about what behavior is appropriate for women and men – Changing roles cause conflict

20. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.1 Percentage of Prominent Characters in Television Commercials Who Were Men, Women, or Both Men and Women Researchers examined television commercials that were broadcast in seven countries and coded the gender of the prominent characters (the ones who were in the foreground demonstrating or commenting on the product being advertised). This figure shows, for each country, the percentage of the prominent characters who were men, women, or both men and women. (Based on data in Paek, Nelson, & Vilela, 2011)

21. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Women’s Roles in Ads Women’s roles have changed The way women are depicted in ads does not correspond to these changes

22. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.2 Percentage of Ads Showing Women Versus Men in a Subordinate Role, by Time Period Researchers analyzed advertisements that appeared in U.S. magazines from 1950 to 2000 and coded the percentage of ads in each year that showed women in a subordinate role versus men in a subordinate role (such as showing deference to someone or receiving guidance from another person). This figure shows the percentage of ads in each category for three different time periods. (Based on data in Mager & Helgeson, 2011)

23. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender Roles Women’s ratings of their own assertiveness have mirrored societal trends: – As women’s roles in the United States have changed from independent to dependent (1946-1957) Ratings of assertiveness dropped – As women’s roles became more independent (1968-1993) Ratings of assertiveness increased

24. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Cohesiveness Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members

25. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Cohesiveness The more cohesive a group is, the more its members are likely to: – Stay in the group – Take part in group activities – Try to recruit new like-minded members Group Cohesiveness Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members.

26. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Cohesiveness If a task requires close cooperation between the group members – Cohesiveness helps performance. Example—A football team executing a difficult play If maintaining good relations among group members is more important than finding good solutions – Cohesiveness can interfere with optimal performance

27. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Groups’ Versus Individuals’ Behavior Do you act differently when other people are around? Simply being in the presence of other people can have a variety of interesting effects on our behavior.

28. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Facilitation – The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks, and worse on complex tasks, when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated.

29. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.3 Cockroaches and Social Facilitation In the maze on the left, cockroaches had a simple task: to go from the starting point down the runway to the darkened box. They performed this feat faster when other roaches were watching than when they were alone. In the maze on the right, the cockroaches had a more difficult task. It took them longer to solve this maze when other roaches were watching than when they were alone. (Based on data in Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman, 1969)

30. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Facilitation The presence of others can mean one of two things: 1.Performing a task with coworkers doing the same thing you are 2.Performing a task in front of an audience that only observes you

31. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Facilitation If task is simple, well-learned – The mere presence of others improves performance – This phenomenon is found in humans as well as other species!

32. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Facilitation Triplett (1898) asked children to wind up fishing line on a reel. – By themselves or in the presence of other children – They wound faster when in the presence of other children than when by themselves One of the first social psychology experiments ever done

33. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Simple Versus Difficult Tasks When working on a more difficult task – Opposite results A task can take longer to solve when others are present than when performing alone. People and animals do worse in the presence of others when the task is difficult.

34. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Arousal and the Dominant Response (Zajonc, 1965) 1.The presence of others increases physiological arousal I.e., our bodies become more energized 2.When such arousal exists: – It is easier to do something that is simple. – It is harder to do something complex or learn something new.

35. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal Three theories to explain the arousal and social facilitation: 1.Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant. 2.Other people make us apprehensive about how we’re being evaluated. 3.Other people distract us from the task at hand.

36. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal 1.Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant. – Because other people can be unpredictable, we are in a state of greater alertness in their presence. Causes mild arousal

37. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal 2.They make us apprehensive about how we’re being evaluated. – When other people can see how you are doing, you feel like they are evaluating you. Evaluation apprehension can cause mild arousal.

38. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal 3.They distract us from the task at hand. – Divided attention produces arousal. – Consistent with this interpretation, nonsocial sources of distraction, such as a flashing light, cause the same kinds of social facilitation effects as the presence of other people.

39. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Loafing When in the presence of others, individual efforts often cannot be distinguished from those around them. If being with other people means merging into a group and becoming less noticeable than when alone  relaxation.

40. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Loafing Ringelmann (1913) – When a group pulled on a rope, each individual exerted less effort than when doing it alone.

41. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Loafing – The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated.

42. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Facilitation and Social Loafing Arousal enhances performance on simple tasks but impairs performance on complex tasks. Becoming relaxed impairs performance on simple tasks but improves performance on complex tasks.

43. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.4 Social Facilitation and Social Loafing The presence of others can lead to social facilitation or social loafing. The important variables that distinguish the two are evaluation, arousal, and the complexity of the tasks.

44. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender and Social Loafing In a review of more than 150 studies – Social loafing is more likely among men. – Women tend to be higher than men in relational interdependence. Focus on and care about personal relationships with other individuals May make women less likely to engage in social loafing when in groups

45. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Culture and Social Loafing Tendency to loaf stronger in Western cultures than in Asian cultures – This may be due to the different definitions of self prevalent in these cultures – Individuals in Asian cultures are more likely to maintain an interdependent view of the self. Defining oneself in terms of relationships to other people

46. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Culture and Social Loafing Tendency to loaf stronger in Western cultures than in Asian cultures – This mode of self-definition may reduce the tendency toward social loafing when in groups

47. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender, Culture, and Social Loafing Women and members of Asian cultures do engage in social loafing when in groups. – They are just less likely to do so than men or members of Western cultures

48. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd Deindividuation – The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people cannot be differentiated (such as when they are in a crowd), leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts.

49. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The robes and hoods of the Ku Klux Klan cloak its members in anonymity; their violent behavior is consistent with research on deindividuation. Source: Tom Kidd/Alamy

50. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd Examples – Massacre at My Lai during the Vietnam War – Mobs of soccer fans sometimes attacking each other – Hysterical fans at rock concerts who trampled each other to death – Lynching of African Americans by people cloaked in the anonymity of white robes

51. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation and Accountability Reason one deindividuation makes people feel less accountable – Because it reduces the likelihood that any individual will be singled out and blamed.

52. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation Increases Obedience to Group Norms Reason number two deindividuation makes people feel less accountable – Meta-analysis of more than 60 studies found that becoming deindividuated increases the extent to which people obey the group’s norms.

53. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.Deindividuation Deindividuation does not always lead to aggressive or antisocial behavior. – Depends on what the norm of the group is

54. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation in Cyberspace The Internet has provided new ways to anonymously communicate. – People often feel free to say things they would never dream of saying if they could be identified.

55. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deindividuation in Cyberspace Cyberspace also provides advantages for the free and open discussion of difficult topics. Cost seems to be a reduction in common civility.

56. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Decisions Most important decisions in the world today are made by groups. – Assumed groups are better than individuals Groups do better than individuals if they rely on the person with the most expertise and consider each other’s comments. Several factors can cause groups to make worse decisions.

57. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving Group will do well only if the most talented member can convince the others that he or she is right!

58. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Process Loss Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving.

59. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Failure to Share Unique Information Groups tend to focus on the information they share and ignore facts known to only some members of the group.

60. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Failure to Share Unique Information Subsequent research has focused on ways to get groups to focus more on unshared information: – Group discussions should last long enough to get beyond what everyone already knows. – Assign different group members to specific areas of expertise so that they know that they alone are responsible for certain types of information.

61. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Transactive Memory Tendency for groups to fail to share important information known to only some of the members can be overcome if people learn who is responsible for what kinds of information and take the time to discuss these unshared data Transactive Memory The combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual.

62. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Groupthink Many Heads, One Mind A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.

63. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Groupthink (Janis 1972, 1982) Groupthink is most likely to occur when group is: – Highly cohesive – Isolated from contrary opinions – Ruled by a directive leader who makes his or her wishes known

64. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Adapted from Janis, 1982. Figure 9.5 Groupthink: Antecedents, Symptoms, and Consequences Under some conditions, maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important to a group than considering the facts in a realistic manner (see “Antecedents”). When this happens, certain symptoms of groupthink occur, such as the illusion of invulnerability (see “Symptoms”). These symptoms lead to defective decision making. (Based on data in Janis & Mann, 1977.)

65. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Avoiding the Groupthink Trap A wise leader can take several steps to avoid groupthink: – Remain impartial – Seek outside opinions – Create subgroups – Seek anonymous opinions

66. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Some have argued that the financial crisis of 2007 was triggered by groupthink among financial experts. Based on what you have read about groupthink, do you think this is true? Source: Andy Dean Photography/Shutterstock

67. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Polarization: Going to Extremes The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members.

68. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 1.Persuasive arguments interpretation – Individuals bring to the group a set of arguments, some of which other individuals have not considered. 2.Social comparison interpretation – When people discuss an issue in a group, they first explore how everyone else feels.

69. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Leadership in Groups Great Person Theory – The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation.

70. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Leadership and Personality Personality and leadership abilities weakly related Compared to nonleaders, leaders tend to be slightly more: – Intelligent – Extraverted – Confident – Charismatic

71. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Leadership and Personality Compared to nonleaders, leaders tend to be slightly more: – Socially skilled – Driven by desire for power – Open to new experiences – Less neurotic

72. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Leadership and Personality Surprisingly few personality characteristics correlate strongly with leadership effectiveness. Relationships that have been found tend to be modest.

73. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Leadership Styles Transactional Leaders – Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them. Transformational Leaders – Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals.

74. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Right Person in the Right Situation A leader can be highly successful in some situations but others. Comprehensive theory of leadership must focus on the leader, followers, and situation.

75. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Right Person in the Right Situation Contingency Theory of Leadership – The idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group.

76. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contingency Theory of Leadership Two basic types 1.Task-Oriented Leader A leader concerned more with getting the job done than with workers’ feelings and relationships 2.Relationship-Oriented Leader A leader who is concerned primarily with workers’ feelings and relationships

77. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contingency Theory of Leadership Task-oriented leaders, most effective – High-control work situations Leader-subordinate relationships are excellent The work is structured and well-defined – Low-control work situations Leader-subordinate relationships are poor The work needing to be done is not clearly defined

78. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contingency Theory of Leadership Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective – Moderate-control work situations Fairly smooth But some attention to poor relationships and hurt feelings is needed

79. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.6 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership According to Fiedler, task-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is high or low, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is moderate.

80. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender and Leadership People believe that agentic traits are associated with good.

81. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender and Leadership Double bind for women leaders: – If warm and communal, Perceived as having low leadership potential – If agentic and forceful Often perceived negatively for not “acting like a woman should”

82. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. If women seeking leadership roles conform to society’s expectations about how they ought to behave, by being warm and communal, they are often perceived as having low leadership potential. If they become leaders and act in ways that leaders are expected to act—namely, in agentic, forceful ways—they are often perceived negatively for not “acting like a woman should.” Source: Michael Reynolds/EPA/Newscom

83. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender and Leadership Glass cliff – Women are thought to be better at managing crises (especially interpersonal ones) Puts them in precarious positions where difficult to succeed

84. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Culture and Leadership Cultural differences – Autonomous leaders valued more in Eastern European than Latin American Cultural similarities in valued leadership qualities – Charisma – Team-Orientation

85. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Conflict and Cooperation Often people have incompatible goals. These incompatibilities place them in conflict with each other. – This can be true of individuals, groups, companies, nations.

86. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Dilemmas A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone.

87. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prisoner’s Dilemma Two people must choose one of two options without knowing what the other person will choose.

88. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prisoner’s Dilemma Payoff depends on the choices of both – Example If both you and your friend both choose option X – You both win $3 If, however, you choose option Y and your friend chooses option X, – You win $6 – You friend loses $6

89. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma People are more likely to adopt a cooperative strategy if: – Playing the game with a friend – Expecting to interact with their partner in the future

90. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Change norms about expected behavior – Changing name from “Wall Street Game” to “Community Game” Increased the percentage of people who cooperated from 33% to 71% in one study

91. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Tit-for-Tat Strategy – A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial.

92. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Using Threats to Resolve Conflict Threats not an effective means of reducing conflict – Trucking game studies Retaliate against threats

93. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.7 The Trucking Game Participants play the role of the head of either Acme or Bolt Trucking Company. In order to earn money, they have to drive their truck from the starting point to their destination as quickly as possible. The quickest route is the one-lane road, but both trucks cannot travel on this road at the same time. In some versions of the studies, participants were given gates that they used to block the other’s progress on the one-lane road. (From Deutsch & Krauss, 1962.)

94. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 9.8 Results of the Trucking-Game Studies The left-hand panel shows the amount of money the participants made (summed over Acme and Bolt) when they could not communicate. When threats were introduced by giving one (“unilateral threat”) or both sides (“bilateral threat”) a gate, both sides lost more money. The right-hand panel shows the amount of money the participants made when they were required to communicate in every trial. Once again, giving them gates reduced their winnings. (Based on data in Deutsch & Krauss, 1962.)

95. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Negotiation and Bargaining Negotiation – A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree.

96. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Negotiation and Bargaining Integrative Solution – A solution to conflict whereby parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side.

97. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neutral mediators often help solve labor disputes, legal battles, and divorce proceedings. Mediators can be in a better position to recognize that there are mutually agreeable solutions to a conflict. Source: Tom McCarthy/PhotoEdit

98. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Negotiation and Bargaining When negotiating, integrative solutions are often available: – Work on gaining trust and communicating. – Remember people often construe situation differently.

99. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Summary and Review Features and Functions Social Facilitation and Social Loafing Are two heads better than one? Leadership Social Dilemmas Resolving Dilemmas