1. Pragmatics
Lecture # 19

2. Review of Lecture 18
Structurism ignores explanatory adequacy, meaning, linguistic universals, native speaker’s intuition and his competence of generating infinite number of sentences from a finite set of items.

3. Review of Lecture 18
Language is not merely an inventory, or catalogue of items, as structuralists imagined.
Structuralists failed to capture all ambiguities and relations.
It does not include the idea of creativity

4. Review of lecture 18
A grammar should also account for deep structures.
It should give such rules that give phonetic transcriptions of surface rules and semantic interpretation of deep structures.

5. Review of lecture 18
The Prague school rejected Saussurean distinction of synchronic and diachronic linguistics & homogeneity of language system
Functionalism in linguistics emphasizes the instrumental character of language.
Furthermore, it says that the structure of language systems is partly though not wholly, determined by functions.

6. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of "how to do things with words" (the name of a well known book by the philosopher J.L. Austin), or perhaps "how people do things with words" (to be more descriptive about it).
Four aspects of pragmatics: speech acts; rhetorical structure; conversational implicature; and the management of reference in discourse.

7. Pragmatics 1. Speech acts
People use language to accomplish certain kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts.
They are distinct from physical acts like drinking a glass of water, or mental acts like thinking about drinking a glass of water.

8. Pragmatics
Speech acts include asking for a glass of water, promising to drink a glass of water, threatening to drink a glass of water, ordering someone to drink a glass of water, and so on.
Most of these ought really to be called "communicative acts", since speech and even language are not strictly required.

9. Pragmatics
Thus someone can ask for a glass of water by pointing to a pitcher and miming the act of drinking.
It's common to divide speech acts into two categories: direct and indirect.
Direct Speech Acts
There are three basic types of direct speech acts, They correspond to three special syntactic types that seem to occur in most of the world's languages.

10. Speech Act
Sentence Type
Function
Examples
Assertion
Declarative.
conveys information; is true or false
"Jenny got an A on the test" 'The girls took photos' ‘Ali took the food')
Question
Interrogative
elicits information
"Did Jenny get an A on the test?" 'Did the girls take photos' 'Did Ali take the food'
Orders and Requests
Imperative
causes others to behave in certain ways
"Get an A on the test!" 'Take some photos! 'Take the food!

11. Pragmatics
Although assertions, questions and orders are fairly universal, and most of the world's languages have separate syntactic constructions that distinguish them, other speech acts do not have a syntactic construction that is specific to them.

12. Pragmatics Consider the English sentence,
(a) If you cross that line, I'll shoot you!
Most English speakers would have no trouble identifying such an utterance as a threat. However, English has no special sentence form for threats. The if-construction used in (a) is not specific to the speech act of threatening.

13. Pragmatics Such a construction might also express a promise, as in:
(b) If you get all A's, I'll buy you a car!
or simply a cause and effect relationship between physical events:
(c) If you heat water to 212 degrees,
Fahrenheit, it will boil.

14. Pragmatics
A consideration of the syntactic means available for expressing the various speech acts leads us to see that even for the three basic speech acts laid out in the table above, speakers may choose means of expression other than the basic syntactic type associated with the speech act in question.

15. To some extent, this just reflects the existence of a diversity of means of expression, but a more pervasive reason is that speakers may use indirect rather than direct speech acts. Indirect Speech Acts
Returning to the speech act of questioning, we can easily come up with a number of alternate ways to ask the same question by using sentence types other than interrogative

16. Pragmatics Let's look again at the interrogative sentence:
(d1) Did Jenny get an A on the test?
A positive answer ("yes") to that question
would give the questioner the actual answer
she wanted,

17. Pragmatics Now consider (d2)
(d2) Do you know if Jenny got an A on the test?
This is still in the form of a question, but it probably is not an inquiry about what you know. Most of the time, the answer "yes, I do" would be ostentatiously uncooperative. The normal answer we would expect in real life would be "Yes, she did", or "No, she only got a B", or something of the sort.

18. Pragmatics
Here the reply is directed to the speech act meaning, not the literal meaning.
A simple "yes" answer that responds to the literal meaning - an uncooperative answer in actual social life
For example "Yes, I do" would be heard as "Yes, I do, but I'm not necessarily going to tell you".

19. Pragmatics
Other indirect ways of asking the same question, using the declarative form, are as under:
(d3) I'd like to know if Jenny got an A on the test.
(d4) I wonder whether Jenny got an A on the
test.

20. Pragmatics
Conventional indirect requests may be expressed as questions as in (e2) and (e3), or as assertions (e4). In context, (e5) and (e6) may also be immediately understood as a complaints, meant as an indirect request for action.
(e2) Could you close the window? (e3) Would you mind closing the window? (e4) I would like you

21. Pragmatics
In the case of the speech act of requesting or ordering, speakers can be even more indirect. As in the case of questions, conventional indirect requests may be questions about the addressee's knowledge or ability. Here is a direct request:
(e1)( Please) close the window.

22. Pragmatics
to close the window. (e5) The window is still open! (e6) I must have asked you a hundred times to
keep that window closed!
Performatives
One subtype of direct speech acts exists in English and in many other languages, and allows us to expand the kinds of direct speech acts we can make beyond the three basic types that have their own special syntax.

23. Pragmatics
These are the direct speech acts that use performative verbs to accomplish their ends. Performative verbs can also be used with the three basic speech act types as exemplified in (f) - (h), associated with making statements, requests and commands respectively:
(f) I assert that Jenny got an A on the test. (g) I ask you who took the photos. (h) I order you to close the window.

24. Pragmatics
To these can be added performative verbs that allow us to directly convey promises, threats, warnings, etc.
(i) I advise you to keep up the payments on your car. (j) I warn you not to step across this line. (k) I promise you that I will pay the money back by the end of the month. (l) I bet you a dollar that it'll rain on the parade.

25. Pragmatics
In the last sentence, the utterance of the sentence actually accomplishes the act of betting (possibly along with setting aside the money for the bet), and as such, it belongs to the class of ceremonial utterances that accomplish other kinds of changes in the world.

26. Pragmatics
(m) I now pronounce you husband and wife. (n) I name this ship Sojourner. (o) I dub thee Sir Galahad.
Not all uses of verbs that can be performative are actually performative in particular utterances. For example, if we change the person or the tense in any of the last seven sentences, they are no longer performative:

27. Pragmatics
(i2) He advises you to keep up the payments on your car. (n2) I named this ship Sojourner.
In both these cases, the utterance simply reports, and does not accomplish the act of advising or of naming.

28. Pragmatics The hereby test.
A test of whether or not a particular sentence is a performative utterance is whether or not you can insert hereby before the verb. If the resulting sentence doesn't make sense, it is not a performative:
(m3) I hereby name this ship Sojourner; but (m4) I hereby named this ship Sojourner.

29. Pragmatics How many kinds of speech acts are there?
Some researchers have extended the classical lists of "speech acts" to include many actions helpful in analyzing task-oriented dialogs e.g. "answer", "accept", "reject" and so forth.

30. Pragmatics 2. Conversational implicature
The work of H.P. Grice takes pragmatics farther than the study of speech acts. Grice's aim was to understand how "speaker's meaning" -- what someone uses an utterance to mean -- arises from "sentence meaning" -- the literal (form and) meaning of an utterance.

31. Pragmatics
Grice proposed that many aspects of "speaker's meaning" result from the assumption that the participants in a conversation are cooperating in an attempt to reach mutual goals -- or at least are pretending to do so!
He called this the Cooperative Principle. It has four sub-parts or maxims that cooperative conversationalists ought in principle to respect:

32. Pragmatics
The maxim of quality. Speakers' contributions ought to be true.
(2) The maxim of quantity. Speakers' contributions should be as informative as required; not saying either too little or too much.
(3) The maxim of relevance. Contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange.
(4) The maxim of manner. Contributions should be perspicuous -- in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.

33. Summary
Pragmatics: The study of "how to do things with words“. People use language to accomplish certain kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts.
They are distinct from physical acts like drinking a glass of water, or mental acts like thinking about drinking a glass of water.

34. Summary Direct Speech Acts 3 basic types Indirect Speech Acts
Performatives
Assert, ask, Order, Promises, Threats, Warnings,

35. More speech acts to analyze task –oriented dialogues: "answer", "accept", "reject" and so forth.
Cooperative speakers respect four maxims:
(1)The maxim of quality,(2) The maxim of quantity. (3) The maxim of relevance (4) The maxim of manner.

36. Contributions should be perspicuous -- in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.