1. Chapter Seven Public Policy Comparative Politics Today, 9/e Almond, Powell, Dalton & Strøm Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2008

2. Government and Policymaking  Public policy consists of all those authoritative public decisions that governments make.  The outputs of the political system  Public policy consists of all those authoritative public decisions that governments make.  The outputs of the political system

3. Government and What It Does  Governments do many things.  Timeless: defense  Production of goods and services  Varies from country to country  How much involvement  And in what sectors  Governments do many things.  Timeless: defense  Production of goods and services  Varies from country to country  How much involvement  And in what sectors

4. Public Policies  Governments engage in various forms of public policy  Many are directed at the major challenges facing contemporary states:  Building community  Fostering development  Securing democracy and rights  Governments engage in various forms of public policy  Many are directed at the major challenges facing contemporary states:  Building community  Fostering development  Securing democracy and rights

6. Public Policies  Public policies may be summarized and compared according to outputs classified into four headings:  Distribution  Extraction  Regulation  Symbolic outputs  Public policies may be summarized and compared according to outputs classified into four headings:  Distribution  Extraction  Regulation  Symbolic outputs

7. From the Night Watchman State to the Welfare State  Night Watchman State: a Lockean state, which primarily sought to regulate just enough to preserve law, order, a good business climate, and the basic security of its citizens  Police State: regulates much more intrusively and extracts resources more severely than the night watchman state  Regulatory State: evolved in all advanced industrial societies as they face the complexities of modern life  Welfare State: found particularly in more prosperous and democratic societies, distributes resources extensively to provide for the health, education, employment, housing, and income support of its citizens  Night Watchman State: a Lockean state, which primarily sought to regulate just enough to preserve law, order, a good business climate, and the basic security of its citizens  Police State: regulates much more intrusively and extracts resources more severely than the night watchman state  Regulatory State: evolved in all advanced industrial societies as they face the complexities of modern life  Welfare State: found particularly in more prosperous and democratic societies, distributes resources extensively to provide for the health, education, employment, housing, and income support of its citizens

8. Welfare State  First modern welfare state programs introduced in Germany in the 1880s  Bismarck: social insurance programs that protected workers  1930s to 1970s most industrialized states have adopted and expanded welfare policies  1980s and 1990s the welfare states in advanced capitalist countries continued to grow albeit at a somewhat slower rate  Mixture between social insurance and social redistribution  In part paternalistic and in part Robin Hood  First modern welfare state programs introduced in Germany in the 1880s  Bismarck: social insurance programs that protected workers  1930s to 1970s most industrialized states have adopted and expanded welfare policies  1980s and 1990s the welfare states in advanced capitalist countries continued to grow albeit at a somewhat slower rate  Mixture between social insurance and social redistribution  In part paternalistic and in part Robin Hood

10. Welfare State  Welfare benefits can be expensive and governments often have limited funds.  There are three principles that govern most welfare state provisions:  Need - help and services are provided to those that need them most  Contribution - benefits should go to those that have contributed to the program  Entitlement/Universalism - everyone should have the benefit, regardless of specific circumstances  Often applied to primary education or to treatment for life- threatening diseases  U.S. model in education - equality of opportunity  U.S. and charitable organizations/individuals  Welfare benefits can be expensive and governments often have limited funds.  There are three principles that govern most welfare state provisions:  Need - help and services are provided to those that need them most  Contribution - benefits should go to those that have contributed to the program  Entitlement/Universalism - everyone should have the benefit, regardless of specific circumstances  Often applied to primary education or to treatment for life- threatening diseases  U.S. model in education - equality of opportunity  U.S. and charitable organizations/individuals

11. Challenges to the Welfare State  Ability of future generations to pay  Growth of senior citizens/dependency ratios  Some welfare states give citizens few incentives to work.  Norway and Sweden  Ability of future generations to pay  Growth of senior citizens/dependency ratios  Some welfare states give citizens few incentives to work.  Norway and Sweden

12. Distribution  Of money, goods, and services - to citizens, residents and clients of the state  Laswell - “who gets what, when, and how”  Distributive policy profiles  Health, education, and national defense consume the largest proportion of government spending across the world.  Developed countries: generally allocate from one half to two thirds of their central government expenditures to education, health, and welfare  Of money, goods, and services - to citizens, residents and clients of the state  Laswell - “who gets what, when, and how”  Distributive policy profiles  Health, education, and national defense consume the largest proportion of government spending across the world.  Developed countries: generally allocate from one half to two thirds of their central government expenditures to education, health, and welfare

13. Extraction  Direct extraction of services  Compulsory military service, jury duty, or compulsory labor imposed on those convicted of crime  Direct resource extraction  Taxation  Direct taxes  Indirect taxes  Progressive tax structure  Regressive tax structure  The tax profiles of different countries vary both in their overall tax burdens and in their reliance on different types of taxes.  Differ in how they collect their revenues  Direct extraction of services  Compulsory military service, jury duty, or compulsory labor imposed on those convicted of crime  Direct resource extraction  Taxation  Direct taxes  Indirect taxes  Progressive tax structure  Regressive tax structure  The tax profiles of different countries vary both in their overall tax burdens and in their reliance on different types of taxes.  Differ in how they collect their revenues

15. Regulation  Regulation is the exercise of political control over the behavior of individuals and groups in society.  Most contemporary governments are both welfare states and regulatory states.  Government regulate:  By legal means  By offering material or financial inducements  By persuasion or moral exhortation  Regulation is the exercise of political control over the behavior of individuals and groups in society.  Most contemporary governments are both welfare states and regulatory states.  Government regulate:  By legal means  By offering material or financial inducements  By persuasion or moral exhortation

16. Regulation  How do we describe and explain the differences between political systems in the area of regulation? We ask:  What aspects of human behavior and interaction are regulated and to what degree?  What social groups are regulated, with what procedural limitations on enforcement and what rights?  What sanctions are used to compel or induce citizens to comply?  One aspect of regulation is particularly important politically: government control over political participation and communication  Political rights and civil liberties  How do we describe and explain the differences between political systems in the area of regulation? We ask:  What aspects of human behavior and interaction are regulated and to what degree?  What social groups are regulated, with what procedural limitations on enforcement and what rights?  What sanctions are used to compel or induce citizens to comply?  One aspect of regulation is particularly important politically: government control over political participation and communication  Political rights and civil liberties

17. Community-Building and Symbolic Policies  Intended to enhance people’s national identity, civil pride, or trust in government  Enhance other areas of performance:  Make people pay their taxes more readily and honestly  Comply with law more faithfully  Accept sacrifice, danger, and hardship  Intended to enhance people’s national identity, civil pride, or trust in government  Enhance other areas of performance:  Make people pay their taxes more readily and honestly  Comply with law more faithfully  Accept sacrifice, danger, and hardship

18. Outcomes: Domestic Welfare  How do extractive, distributive, regulative, and symbolic policies affect the lives of citizens?  Sometimes policies have unintended and undesirable consequences.  To estimate the effectiveness of public policy, we have to examine actual welfare outcomes as well as governmental policies and their implementation.  Measures of economic well-being  Nigeria and India - severe problems  Income distribution tends to be most unequal in medium-income developing societies, such as Brazil, and more equal in advanced market societies as well as in low-income developing societies, such as India.  Kuznets Curve  Health outcomes  Education and information technologies  How do extractive, distributive, regulative, and symbolic policies affect the lives of citizens?  Sometimes policies have unintended and undesirable consequences.  To estimate the effectiveness of public policy, we have to examine actual welfare outcomes as well as governmental policies and their implementation.  Measures of economic well-being  Nigeria and India - severe problems  Income distribution tends to be most unequal in medium-income developing societies, such as Brazil, and more equal in advanced market societies as well as in low-income developing societies, such as India.  Kuznets Curve  Health outcomes  Education and information technologies

22. Domestic Security Outcomes  Crime rates have been on the increase in many advanced industrial societies until recently as well as the developing world.  Russia, Brazil and Mexico- high rates of crimes  England, France (has had an increase), and Germany have a small fraction of the U.S.’s crime numbers  China has low murder rates; Japan even lower.  Much crime found in urban areas.  Causes are complex.  Migration increases diversity and conflict.  Pace of urbanization explosive; severe problems of poverty and infrastructure  Inequality of income and wealth, unemployment, drug abuse, hopelessness of big city life  Crime rates have come down in the U.S.  Stronger economy; increased incarceration time; decrease in youth  Crime rates have been on the increase in many advanced industrial societies until recently as well as the developing world.  Russia, Brazil and Mexico- high rates of crimes  England, France (has had an increase), and Germany have a small fraction of the U.S.’s crime numbers  China has low murder rates; Japan even lower.  Much crime found in urban areas.  Causes are complex.  Migration increases diversity and conflict.  Pace of urbanization explosive; severe problems of poverty and infrastructure  Inequality of income and wealth, unemployment, drug abuse, hopelessness of big city life  Crime rates have come down in the U.S.  Stronger economy; increased incarceration time; decrease in youth

24. International Outputs and Outcomes  International activities: economic, diplomatic, military and informational  Most common outcome of the interaction among nations is warfare  Deadly costs of international warfare have gradually escalated  90 percent of the war deaths since 1700 have occurred in the 20th century.  In the last decades of the 20th century, more than three-quarters of the war deaths were civilian.  People of USSR-Russian have been the greatest victims of the tormented history of the 20th century.  Germany suffered the second largest number of deaths.  Followed by China and Japan, France and Great Britain  International activities: economic, diplomatic, military and informational  Most common outcome of the interaction among nations is warfare  Deadly costs of international warfare have gradually escalated  90 percent of the war deaths since 1700 have occurred in the 20th century.  In the last decades of the 20th century, more than three-quarters of the war deaths were civilian.  People of USSR-Russian have been the greatest victims of the tormented history of the 20th century.  Germany suffered the second largest number of deaths.  Followed by China and Japan, France and Great Britain

26. International Outputs and Outcomes  After WWI the most devastating conflicts have occurred in the Third World.  Partition of British India into India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh associated with numerous deadly conflicts.  Conflicts in Africa  Many newly independent from about 1960  Borders drawn by colonial powers  Serious problems of national cohesion/chronic civil war  End of Cold War  Wave of instability and conflict  Uppsala Conflict Data Project  Role of the United Nations  Economic costs of national security  After WWI the most devastating conflicts have occurred in the Third World.  Partition of British India into India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh associated with numerous deadly conflicts.  Conflicts in Africa  Many newly independent from about 1960  Borders drawn by colonial powers  Serious problems of national cohesion/chronic civil war  End of Cold War  Wave of instability and conflict  Uppsala Conflict Data Project  Role of the United Nations  Economic costs of national security

27. Political Goods and Values  If we are to compare and evaluate public policy in different political systems, we need to consider the political goods that motivate different policies.  System goods: Citizens are most free and most able to act purposefully when their environment is stable, transparent, and predictable.  Process goods: citizen participation and free political participation; democratic procedures and various rights of due process  Policy goods: economic welfare, quality of life, freedom and personal security  If we are to compare and evaluate public policy in different political systems, we need to consider the political goods that motivate different policies.  System goods: Citizens are most free and most able to act purposefully when their environment is stable, transparent, and predictable.  Process goods: citizen participation and free political participation; democratic procedures and various rights of due process  Policy goods: economic welfare, quality of life, freedom and personal security

30. Political Goods and Values  There are two important criteria that most of us would agree that government policy should meet:  Fairness  Promotion and preservation of freedom  There are two important criteria that most of us would agree that government policy should meet:  Fairness  Promotion and preservation of freedom

31. Trade-offs and Opportunity Costs  Hard fact about political goods: We cannot always have them all simultaneously.  A political system often has to trade off one value to obtain another.  Opportunity costs are what you lose in one area by committing your resources to a different good.  One of the important tasks of social science is to discover the conditions under which positive and negative trade-offs occur.  Hard fact about political goods: We cannot always have them all simultaneously.  A political system often has to trade off one value to obtain another.  Opportunity costs are what you lose in one area by committing your resources to a different good.  One of the important tasks of social science is to discover the conditions under which positive and negative trade-offs occur.