1. Factors affecting fertility The factors affecting population change can be grouped into four categories: –Demographic –Social / Cultural –Economic –Political

2. Demographic: Other population factors, particularly mortality rates, influence fertility. Where infant mortality is high, it is usual for many children to die before reaching adult life. In such societies, parents often have many children to compensate for these expected deaths. The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births per year.

3. Social/Cultural: In some societies, particularly in Africa, tradition demands high rates of reproduction. Here the opinion of women in the reproductive years may have little influence weighed against intense cultural expectations. Education, especially female literacy, is the key to lower fertility. With education comes a knowledge of birth control, greater social awareness, more opportunity for employment and a wider choice of action generally. In some countries religion is an important factor. For example, the Muslim and Roman Catholic religions oppose artificial birth control. Most countries that have population policies have been trying to reduce their fertility by investing in birth control programmes.

5. Economic: In many of the least developed countries children are seen as an economic asset because of the work they do and also the support they are expected to give their parents in old age. In the more developed world the general perception is reversed and the cost of the child dependency years is a major factor in the decision to begin or extend a family. Economic growth allows greater spending on health, housing, nutrition and education which is important in lowering mortality and in turn reducing fertility.

6. Political: There are many examples in the past century of governments attempting to change the rate of population growth for economic and strategic reasons. During the late 1930s Germany, Italy and Japan all offered inducements and concessions to those with large families. In more recent years Malaysia has adopted a similar policy. However, today most governments that are interventionist in terms of fertility want to reduce population growth.

7. Factors affecting mortality In 1900 the world average for life expectancy is estimated to have been about 30 years but by 1950-55 it had risen to 46 years. By 1980-85 it had reached a fraction under 60 years and is presently 68 years. Life expectancy at birth: the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live under current mortality levels.

8. HighestLowest CountryYearsCountryYears Japan82Swaziland33 Australia81Botswana34 France81Lesotho36 Iceland81Zimbabwe37 Italy81Zambia38 Sweden81Malawi40 Switzerland80Angola41 Austria80Afghanistan42 Canada80Central African Republic43 Israel80Mozambique43 Malta80 Netherlands80 New Zealand80 Norway80 Singapore80 Spain80

9. The infant mortality rate is generally regarded as a prime indicator of socio-economic progress. Over the world as a whole infant mortality has declined sharply during the last half century. Between 1950 and 1955 the global average was 138/1000 but by 1975-80 it was down to 88/1000 and now it is down to 52/1000. The average for MDCs stands at 6/1000 while the rate in LDCs is 57/1000.

10. The causes of death vary significantly between the more developed and less developed worlds In the developing world, infectious and parasitic diseases account for over 40 per cent of all deaths. They are also a major cause of disability and social and economic upheaval. In contrast, in the more developed world these diseases have a relatively low impact. In rich countries heart disease and cancer are the big killers.

11. Apart from the challenges of the physical environment in many less developed countries, a range of social and economic factors contribute to the high rates of infectious diseases. These include: –poverty –poor access to health care –antibiotic resistance –evolving human migration patterns –new infectious agents

12. Factors influencing migration Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary, national or international, to establish a new permanent place of residence. In contrast, circulatory movements are movements with a timescale of less than a year. This includes seasonal movements which involve a semi-permanent change of residence. Daily commuting also comes into this category. Mobility is an all-embracing term which includes both migration and circulation.