1. During this presentation we will be getting inside the mind of a criminal and exploring the biology and upbringing in relation to criminal activity. By Jess, Sally and Eilisha

2. Biology of a criminal... Neuro chemicals are responsible for the activation of behavioural patterns and tendencies in specific areas of the brain. There have been attempts to determine the role of neuro chemicals in influencing criminal or antisocial behaviour. Included in the list of neuro chemicals already cited by researchers are monoamine oxidase, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an enzyme that has been shown to be related to antisocial behaviour. Specifically, low MAO activity results in disinhibition which can lead to impulsivity and aggression found by Elliot in 2000

3. Biology of a criminal... Serotonin is a neurochemical that plays an important role in the personality traits of depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder as found by Larsen & Buss in 2005. It is also involved with brain development and a disorder in this system could lead to an increase in aggressiveness and impulsivity. Low levels of serotonin have been found to be associated with impulsive behaviour and emotional aggression. In addition, children who suffer from conduct disorder; have also been shown to have low blood serotonin. Needless to say, there is a great deal of evidence that shows serotonin is related to aggression, which can be further associated with antisocial or criminal behaviour.

4. Biology of a criminal... Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain that is associated with pleasure and is also one of the neurotransmitters that is chiefly associated with aggression. Activation of both affective (emotionally driven) and predatory aggression is accomplished by dopamine. Genes in the dopaminergic pathway have also been found to be involved with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) In one study by Morley and Hall (2003), a relationship was found between the genes in the dopaminergic pathway, impulsivity, ADHD, and violent offenders. Obviously, from this list of neuro chemicals it seems plausible that there is a genetic component to antisocial or criminal behaviour.

5. Biology of a criminal... Personality traits Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Conduct Disorder (CD), and Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) are three of the more prominent disorders that have been shown to have a relationship with later adult behaviour. Personality traits and disorders have recently become essential in the diagnosis of individuals with antisocial or criminal behaviour. These traits and disorders do not first become evident when an individual is an adult, rather these can be seen in children. For that reason it seems logical to discuss those personality disorders that first appear in childhood.

6. Biology of a criminal... Personality traits Oppositional Defiance Disorder is characterized by argumentativeness, noncompliance, and irritability, which can be found in early childhood. They start to lie and steal, engage in vandalism, substance abuse, and show aggression towards peers. Frequently ODD is the first disorder that is identified in children and if sustained, can lead to the diagnosis of CD. It is important to note however that not all children who are diagnosed with ODD will develop Conduct Disorder. ADHD is associated with hyperactivity-impulsivity and the inability to keep attention focused on one thing. They also point to the fact that children diagnosed with ADHD have the inability to analyze and anticipate consequences or learn from their past behaviour. Children with this disorder are at risk of developing ODD and CD, unless the child is only diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), in which case their chances of developing ODD or CD are limited.

7. Biology of a criminal... Personality traits Conduct Disorder is characterized with an individual's violation of societal rules and norms as stated by Morley & Hall, 2003. What is even more significant is the fact that ODD, ADHD, and CD are risk factors for developing Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). This disorder can only be diagnosed when an individual is over the age of eighteen and at which point an individual shows persistent disregard for the rights of others. ASPD has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of criminal activity. Therefore, it is of great importance that these early childhood disorders are correctly diagnosed and effectively treated to prevent future problems

8. Upbringing of a criminal Forensic science consists of three main factors, Biology, Upbringing and Cognition. Upbringing being the main focus of these next few slides. There are 3 main studies related to crime and upbringing. Farrington, Yochelson and samenow and Kohlberg. All focusing on the relation between crime and upbringing. When talking about upbringing we mean influences such as from friends, family teachers and the general environment that the person is in. And where they have been brought up and how they have been brought up.

9. Upbringing of a criminal.. By teaching children the difference between right and wrong was seen to be the most effective of tackling crime. If they know right from wrong from a young age this will allow them in the future to obey rules and most likely commit any serious crimes. By parents spending more time with their children and having firmer discipline was other effective ways of tackling crime from the beginning. Statistics show that 90% of people believed that teaching children right from wrong was the most effective way while spending more time with children was 85% and firmer discipline at school was 83%

10. Upbringing of a criminal Some of the main factors affecting the upbringings of a criminal is disrupted families, poverty, learning from others and living in a disadvantaged area. Disrupted families can be split up into many sections such as parents having a divorce, other family members being linked or having committed a crime or death of a family member. Theories from Sutherland say that: criminal behaviour is learnt. It is learnt through interacting with other people. Learnt from the closest to us – Family and friends. Repetition contact with criminal behaviour may reinforce it as the right way to behave. Learn which laws to break due to being pointless. Such as underage drinking, smoking and sex. Criminal behaviour is an expression of values rather than needs.

11. Upbringing of a criminal Upbringing related to poverty and disadvantaged neighbourhoods. - 5% of disadvantaged people are 100 times more likely to commit crime. -Crime is due to environmental factors such as an opportunity to commit crime. - Crime may be a reaction to try and find better living conditions or a temporary escape. Chronic offenders shared common childhood characteristics: -more likely to have convicted parents. -more likely to be more ‘daring’ -more likely to have a young mother -more likely to be unpopular. -more likely to have a large family. -more likely to have a disrupted family.

12. Upbringing of a criminal Farrington et al: Farrington aimed to document the start, duration and end of offending behaviour from childhood to adulthood in families. And to investigate the influence of life events, the risk and protective factors predicting offending and anti-social behaviour. The intergenerational transmission of offending and anti-social behaviour and the influence of family background. Sutherland is based on the theories that were mentioned earlier in the slide. Wikstrom and Tafel: A cross sectional study, there were nearly 2000 year 10 aged 14-15 students. And the methodology was interview and data collection.

13. Upbringing of a criminal Results from the studies such as farrington shows that the number of offenders peaked at age 17 closely followed by 18. Those who started committing crimes at the age of 10-13 were nearly all re-convicted at least once. Farrington believes that early prevention such as teaching right from wrong or being strict could have a wide range of benefits in reducing problems with many things Such as : relationships employment Accommodation alcohol/drug factors And less crime committed if any at all.

14. Turning to Crime - Cognition Psychologists believe that criminals have different thought processes, allowing them to view their criminal behaviour as logical and attractive.

15. Is crime under our conscious control? This is by definition being determinist. When looking for an explanation for criminal behaviour we look at the biological, cognitive or social drivers of criminal behaviour.

16. Moral Development and Crime These are inbuilt values that we learn in our childhood, that determine our sense of right and wrong. For example, the murder of James Bulger in1993. Where the defendants were found guilty at the age of 11.

17. Kohlberg Kohlberg identifies six main stages in moral development. His stages are the following: Level 1 - Pre-morality (stage 1 and stage 2) Level 2 - Conventional morality (stage 3 and stage 4) Level 3 - Post-conventional morality (stage 5 and 6) Younger boys tended to perform at stages 1 and 2, with older boys at stages 3 and 4, thus supporting the moral development theory.

18. Social cognition This refers to the way our thought processes are influenced by the people we mix with. Gudjohnsson identifies two important types of attributions. First there are internal versus external attributions. Internal attribution is where a person attributes the cause of behaviour within them themselves. External attribution refers to social and environmental factors, which include provocation and social pressures. The second type of attribution is what he calls the mental element. For example ‘I killed john because I was depressed and lost control of myself’ would be a mental-element attribution. Guilt is the third dimension and is the offenders remorse about the offence.

19. Things to consider Where do our thought processes come from? Why do people think differently about the same thing? What shapes our opinions and beliefs?