1. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1 PsychSmart INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

2. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 2 CHAPTER EIGHT: CHAPTER EIGHT: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

3. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 3 Explaining Motivation How does motivation direct and energize behavior? How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

4. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 4 Motivation Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms

5. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 5 Instinct Approaches Instincts Instincts Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned Psychologists do not agree on what, or how many, primary instincts exist Psychologists do not agree on what, or how many, primary instincts exist

6. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 6 Drive-Reduction Approaches Suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement Suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement Drive Drive Motivation tension, or arousal, that energize behavior to fulfill a need Motivation tension, or arousal, that energize behavior to fulfill a need Primary Primary Secondary Secondary

7. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 7 Arousal Approaches Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out

8. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 8 Incentive Approaches Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the external incentives of incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the external incentives of incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior

9. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 9 Cognitive Approaches Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals

10. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 10 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied Suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow Self-actualization Self-actualization State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential

11. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 11 Maslow’s Pyramid Figure 1 of Chapter 8

12. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 12 Human Needs and Motivation What biological and social factors underlie hunger? What biological and social factors underlie hunger? What are the varieties of sexual behavior? What are the varieties of sexual behavior? How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and power motivation exhibited? How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and power motivation exhibited?

13. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 13 Hunger and Eating Obesity Obesity ¼ of people in the United States ¼ of people in the United States Body Mass Index (BMI) Body Mass Index (BMI) Based on ratio of weight to height Based on ratio of weight to height BMI > 30 is considered obese BMI > 30 is considered obese

14. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 14 Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger Hypothalamus Hypothalamus Monitors glucose levels Monitors glucose levels Lateral hypothalamus Lateral hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamus Weight Set Point Weight Set Point Metabolism Metabolism

15. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 15 Social Factors in Eating Societal Rules Societal Rules Cultural Influences Cultural Influences Individual Habits Individual Habits Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Associating food with comfort and consolation Associating food with comfort and consolation

16. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 16 The Roots of Obesity Oversensitivity to external eating cues Oversensitivity to external eating cues Insensitivity to internal hunger cues Insensitivity to internal hunger cues Higher weight set points Higher weight set points Leptin Leptin Rate of weight gain during the first four months of life is related to being overweight during later childhood Rate of weight gain during the first four months of life is related to being overweight during later childhood

17. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 17 Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia Nervosa Refusal to eat while denying one’s behavior and appearance are unusual Refusal to eat while denying one’s behavior and appearance are unusual Bulimia Bulimia Disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food Disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food Purging Purging Exercise bulimia Exercise bulimia

18. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 18 Losing Weight Successfully There is no easy route to weight control There is no easy route to weight control Keep track of what you eat and what you weigh Keep track of what you eat and what you weigh Eat “big” foods Eat “big” foods Bulky and heavy but low in calories Bulky and heavy but low in calories Cut out television Cut out television Exercise Exercise Decrease the influence of external, social stimuli on your eating behavior Avoid fad diets Avoid taking diet pills There is no magic pill Maintain good eating habits Set reasonable goals

19. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 19 Sexual Motivation Androgens Androgens Male sex hormones Male sex hormones Estrogens and Progesterone Estrogens and Progesterone Female sex hormones Female sex hormones Figure 2 of Chapter 8

20. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 20 Sexual Motivation Ovulation Ovulation When an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by a sperm cell higher When an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by a sperm cell higher

21. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 21 Sexual Motivation Masturbation: Solitary Sex Masturbation: Solitary Sex Sexual self-stimulation, often using the hand to rub the genitals Sexual self-stimulation, often using the hand to rub the genitals Heterosexuality Heterosexuality Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex

22. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 22 Sexual Motivation Premarital Sex Premarital Sex Double standard Double standard Dramatic change in public opinion Dramatic change in public opinion Marital Sex Marital Sex Frequency varies Frequency varies Extramarital sex Extramarital sex

23. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 23 Sexual Motivation Homosexuality Homosexuality Sexually attracted to members of the same sex Sexually attracted to members of the same sex Gay Gay Lesbian Lesbian Bisexuality Bisexuality Sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex Sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex

24. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 24 Sexual Motivation Transsexualism Transsexualism Transsexuals Transsexuals One’s gender identity does not match their physical sex One’s gender identity does not match their physical sex Some seek sex-change operations Some seek sex-change operations Transgenderism Transgenderism Transsexuals and people who view themselves as a third gender, transvestites, or others who believe that traditional male-female gender classification inadequately characterizes themselves Transsexuals and people who view themselves as a third gender, transvestites, or others who believe that traditional male-female gender classification inadequately characterizes themselves

25. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 25 The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power The Need for Achievement The Need for Achievement Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence

26. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 26 The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power The Need for Affiliation The Need for Affiliation An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people Gender is a strong determinant of how much time is spent with friends Gender is a strong determinant of how much time is spent with friends

27. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 27 The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power The Need for Power The Need for Power Tendency to seek control or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual Tendency to seek control or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual More apt to belong to organizations and seek office More apt to belong to organizations and seek office

28. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 28 Understanding Emotional Experiences What are emotions, and how do we experience them? What are emotions, and how do we experience them? What are the functions of emotions? What are the functions of emotions? What are the explanations for emotions? What are the explanations for emotions? How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions? How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions?

29. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 29 Understanding Emotional Experiences Emotions Emotions Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior

30. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 30 The Functions of Emotions Preparing us for action Preparing us for action Shaping our future behavior Shaping our future behavior Helping us interact more effectively with others Helping us interact more effectively with others

31. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 31 Determining the Range of Emotions There are various ways of categorizing emotions There are various ways of categorizing emotions Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include: Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include: Happiness Happiness Anger Anger Fear Fear Sadness Sadness Disgust Disgust

32. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 32 Determining the Range of Emotions Hierarchy of Emotions Figure 3 of Chapter 8

33. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 33 The Roots of Emotions The James-Lange Theory The James-Lange Theory Proposes that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific sensations; the brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of emotional experiences Proposes that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific sensations; the brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of emotional experiences

34. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 34 The Roots of Emotions The Cannon-Bard Theory The Cannon-Bard Theory Assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, which emanates from the thalamus in the brain Assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, which emanates from the thalamus in the brain

35. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 35 The Roots of Emotions The Schachter-Singer Theory The Schachter-Singer Theory Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others Supports a cognitive view of emotions Supports a cognitive view of emotions

36. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 36 The Roots of Emotion A Comparison of Three Models of Emotion Figure 4 of Chapter 8

37. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 37 The Roots of Emotions Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives on Emotion Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives on Emotion Emotions are such complex phenomena, encompassing both biological and cognitive aspects, that no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience Emotions are such complex phenomena, encompassing both biological and cognitive aspects, that no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience

38. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 38 Cultural Differences in Expression of Emotion Facial-Affect Program Facial-Affect Program Assumed to be universally present at birth Assumed to be universally present at birth Analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a particular emotion is experienced Analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a particular emotion is experienced Displays an appropriate expression Displays an appropriate expression

39. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 39 Cultural Differences in Expression of Emotion Facial-Feedback Hypothesis Facial-Feedback Hypothesis Not only reflects emotional experience, but also helps determine how people experience and label emotions Not only reflects emotional experience, but also helps determine how people experience and label emotions Some theoreticians have suggested that facial expressions are necessary for an emotion to be experienced Some theoreticians have suggested that facial expressions are necessary for an emotion to be experienced