1. Psychology: Brain, Mind, and Culture, 2e by Drew Westen Paul J. Wellman Texas A&M University John Wiley and Sons, Inc. PowerPoint  Presentation: Chapter 7 Thought and Language

2. © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Lecture Outline n Units of Thought n Reasoning n Language n Language Development

3. Thought n Thought is an extension of perception and memory  We form mental representations  We recall representations using memory  We mentally manipulate the representations  Thinking can involve words or images © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

4. Mental Rotation Study n Subjects are shown a stimulus (e.g. “R”) that is rotated between 0 and 360 o n Subjects must decide whether the letter is normal or a mirror image © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Cooper & Shepherd, 1973)

5. Concepts and Categories n Objects are classified on the basis of their properties  Categories: natural groupings based on common properties  Concept: a mental representation of a category “Cat”: small, hairy, and independent creature © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

6. Process of Categorization n Categorization involves recognizing an object as a member of a category n We categorize objects by  Comparison with defining features clearly defined (salt) vs “fuzzy” (“honest”)  Similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes Prototypes are a model based on abstraction of the characteristics of the category Can be a visual shape or verbal characteristics n Categories are organized in hierarchies  Basic level to subordinate level © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

7. Reasoning n Inductive: reason from specific observations to general propositions n Deductive: drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions  The conclusion is true if the premises are true  Syllogism: formal statements in deductive reasoning. Comprised of 2 premises and a conclusion © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

8. Syllogism Examples n Premise: All A are B n Premise: C is an A n Therefore: C is a B © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. n All men are mortal n Socrates is a man n Socrates is mortal

9. Problem Solving n Process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal n Problems vary by definition:  Well-defined versus ill-defined n Strategies of problem solving:  Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a problem; then test it  Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

10. Impediments to Problem-Solving n Functional fixedness: our tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses n Confirmation bias: we seek to confirm what we already believe © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

11. Everyday Thought n Implicit Thinking: focus is on unconscious thought processes (as opposed to conscious explicit thought)  Examples include: Classical conditioning of motivation –We avoid persons who resemble others who have been obnoxious toward us Unconscious psychodynamic motives –Notion that children seek persons who have the characteristics of their parents © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

12. Heuristics n Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that allow us to make decisions (may border on irrational)  Representative heuristic: we match an object to its category but don’t process how likely the match is  Availability heuristic: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical “Driving to Grandma’s house is safer than flying to Iraq…” © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

13. Connectionist Models of Thought n Connectionism assumes that  thought processing occurs in parallel  the meaning of a symbol is distributed throughout the brain © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Rumelhart, 1984, p.8)

14. Frontal Cortex: Role in Thought n The Frontal lobes are critical for the processing of thought  Dorsolateral prefrontal region: damage here leads to impaired planning, distractability, and deficits in working memory  Ventromedial prefrontal region: damage here interrupts connections to the limbic system and results in mood swings, loss of social inhibition, and changes in personality e.g. the case of Phineas Gage © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

15. Prefrontal Cortex © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

16. Language n A language is a system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans  Phonemes: the smallest units of sound  Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning  Phrases are composed of morphemes  Sentences: strings of morphemes and phrases that express a thought or intention © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

17. Nonverbal Communication n Nonverbal communication includes:  vocal intonation  body language (crossed arms)  gestures (often involving the hands or fingers)  physical distance  facial expressions  touch © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

18. Language Development n The case for nurture:  B.F. Skinner: children imitate the utterances of their parents Argues that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds n The case for nature:  Chomksy argued that language acquisition appears to be universal across culture (could not be accounted for by learning) © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

19. Critical Periods for Language Acquisition n Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all  Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty  Isolated children have language impairments: Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to learn complex language as an adolescent © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

20. Language in Animals n Question: Is language solely a human function? n Primates cannot speak (no vocal cords)  Researchers have examined nonverbal language in primates using symbols © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Premack & Premack, 1972)

21. Copyright Copyright 1999 by John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner. © 1999 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.