1. Count Rumford supervised the drilling of brass cannons in a factory in Bavaria.
From his observations, Rumford concluded that heat is not a form of matter.

2. Work and Heat
In what direction does heat flow spontaneously?
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another because of a temperature difference.
Heat flows spontaneously from hot objects to cold objects.

3. Work and Heat
A drill is a machine that does work on the cannon. Remember that no machine is 100% efficient. Some of the work done by the drill is useful, but some energy is lost due to friction.
Heat flows from the cannon to a surrounding water bath because the cannon is at a higher temperature than the water.

4. Temperature
What is the temperature of an object related to?
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object due to their random motions through space.

5. Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is compared to a reference point.
On the Celsius scale, the reference points are the freezing and boiling points of water.
On the Kelvin scale, absolute zero is defined as a temperature of 0 kelvins.

6. Temperature
As an object heats up, its particles move faster, on average. The average kinetic energy of the particles increases.
One way that heat flows is by the transfer of energy in collisions.
On average, high-energy particles lose energy. Low-energy particles gain energy.
Overall, collisions transfer thermal energy from hot to cold objects.

7. Thermal Energy
What two variables is thermal energy related to?
Thermal energy is the total potential and kinetic energy of all the particles in an object.
Thermal energy depends on the mass, temperature, and phase (solid, liquid, or gas) of an object.

8. Thermal Energy
Thermal energy depends on mass. A cup of tea and a teapot full of tea can have the same temperature.
The average kinetic energy of the particles is the same in the cup and the pot.
There is more thermal energy in the teapot because it contains more particles.

9. Thermal Energy
Thermal energy depends on temperature. Compare a cup of hot tea with a cup of cold tea.
In both cups, the tea has the same mass and number of particles.
The average kinetic energy of particles is higher in the hot tea, so it has greater thermal energy.

10. Thermal Energy
Thermal energy depends on mass and temperature.
The tea is at a higher temperature than the lemonade.
The lemonade has more thermal energy because it has many more particles.

11. Thermal Contraction and Expansion
What causes thermal expansion?
Thermal expansion is an increase in the volume of a material due to a temperature increase.
Thermal expansion occurs when particles of matter move farther apart as temperature increases.

12. Thermal Energy
If you take a balloon outside on a cold winter day, it shrinks in a process of thermal contraction.
As temperature decreases, the particles that make up the air inside the balloon move more slowly, on average.
Slower particles collide less often and exert less force.
Gas pressure decreases and the balloon contracts.

13. Thermal Energy
If you bring the balloon inside, it expands.
Gases expand more than liquids and liquids usually expand more than solids.

14. Thermal Energy
As temperature increases, the alcohol in a thermometer expands, and its height increases in proportion to the increase in temperature.
In an oven thermometer, strips of steel and brass expand at different rates as the coil heats up. The coil unwinds, moving the needle on the temperature scale.

15. Specific Heat
How is a change in temperature related to specific heat?
Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a material by one degree Celsius.
The lower a material’s specific heat, the more its temperature rises when a given amount of energy is absorbed by a given mass.

16. Specific Heat
When a car is heated by the sun, the temperature of the metal door increases more than the temperature of the plastic bumper.
The iron in the door has a lower specific heat than the plastic in the bumper.

17. Specific Heat

18. Specific Heat
In this formula, heat is in joules, mass is in grams, specific heat is in J/g•°C, and the temperature change is in degrees Celsius.

19. Specific Heat
Calculating Specific Heat
An iron skillet has a mass of grams. The specific heat of iron is J/g•°C. How much heat must be absorbed to raise the skillet’s temperature by 95.0°C?

20. Specific Heat
Read and Understand
What information are you given?

21. Specific Heat
Read and Understand
What information are you given?

22. Specific Heat
Plan and Solve
What unknown are you trying to calculate?
What formula contains the given quantities and the unknown?

23. Specific Heat
Plan and Solve
What unknown are you trying to calculate?
What formula contains the given quantities and the unknown?

24. Specific Heat
Plan and Solve
Replace each variable with its known value.

25. Specific Heat
Plan and Solve
Replace each variable with its known value.

26. Specific Heat
Look Back and Check
Is your answer reasonable?

27. Round off the data to give a quick estimate.
Specific Heat
Look Back and Check
Is your answer reasonable?
Round off the data to give a quick estimate.
Q = 500 g × 0.5 J/g•°C × 100°C = 25 kJ
This is close to 21.4 kJ, so the answer is reasonable.

28. Specific Heat
1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of g of water by 85.0°C? Answer:

29. Specific Heat
1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of g of water by 85.0°C? Answer: Q = m * c * ∆T = (100.0 g)(4.18 J/g•°C)(85.0°C)
= 35.5 kJ

30. Specific Heat
2. How much heat is absorbed by a 750-g iron skillet when its temperature rises from 25°C to 125°C? Answer:

31. Specific Heat
2. How much heat is absorbed by a 750-g iron skillet when its temperature rises from 25°C to 125°C? Answer: Q = m * c * ∆T = (750 g)(0.449 J/g•°C)(125°C – 25°C)
= (750 g)(0.449 J/g•°C)(100°C)
= 34 kJ

32. Specific Heat
3. In setting up an aquarium, the heater transfers 1200 kJ of heat to 75,000 g of water. What is the increase in the water’s temperature? (Hint: Rearrange the specific heat formula to solve for ∆T.) Answer:

33. Specific Heat
3. In setting up an aquarium, the heater transfers 1200 kJ of heat to 75,000 g of water. What is the increase in the water’s temperature? (Hint: Rearrange the specific heat formula to solve for ∆T.) Answer: ∆T = Q / (m x c) = 1,200,000 J/(75,000 g × 4.18 J/g•°C)
= 3.8°C

34. Specific Heat
4. To release a diamond from its setting, a jeweler heats a 10.0-g silver ring by adding 23.5 J of heat. How much does the temperature of the silver increase? Answer:

35. Specific Heat
4. To release a diamond from its setting, a jeweler heats a 10.0-g silver ring by adding 23.5 J of heat. How much does the temperature of the silver increase? Answer: ∆T = Q / (m x c) = 23.5 J/(10.0 g × J/g•°C)
= 10.0°C

36. Specific Heat
5. What mass of water will change its temperature by 3.0°C when 525 J of heat is added to it? Answer:

37. Specific Heat
5. What mass of water will change its temperature by 3.0°C when 525 J of heat is added to it? Answer: m = Q / (∆T x c) = 525 J/(3.0°C × 4.18 J/g•°C)
= 42 g

38. Specific Heat
On what principle does a calorimeter operate?
A calorimeter is an instrument used to measure changes in thermal energy.
The lower a material’s specific heat, the more its temperature rises when a given amount of energy is absorbed by a given mass.

39. Specific Heat
According to the law of conservation of energy, the thermal energy released by a test sample is equal to the thermal energy absorbed by its surroundings.
The calorimeter is sealed to prevent thermal energy from escaping.

40. Specific Heat
A calorimeter is used to measure specific heat. A sample is heated and placed in the calorimeter. The temperature change is observed.

41. What is the thermal energy of an object?
Assessment Questions
What is the thermal energy of an object?
the total number of atoms or molecules
the total kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
the average mechanical energy of the atoms or molecules

42. What is the thermal energy of an object?
Assessment Questions
What is the thermal energy of an object?
the total number of atoms or molecules
the total kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
the average mechanical energy of the atoms or molecules ANS: B

43. What causes a gas to expand when its temperature is increased?
Assessment Questions
What causes a gas to expand when its temperature is increased?
The number of particles increases as temperature increases.
Each particle expands as its temperature increases, so the total volume increases.
As temperature increases, more electrons leave atoms and move separately.
As gas particles move faster, they overcome some forces of attraction.

44. What causes a gas to expand when its temperature is increased?
Assessment Questions
What causes a gas to expand when its temperature is increased?
The number of particles increases as temperature increases.
Each particle expands as its temperature increases, so the total volume increases.
As temperature increases, more electrons leave atoms and move separately.
As gas particles move faster, they overcome some forces of attraction. ANS: D

45. Assessment Questions
The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g•°C. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 1,000 grams of water by 50°C?
83.6 J
83.6 kJ
209 J
209 kJ

46. Assessment Questions
The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g•°C. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 1,000 grams of water by 50°C?
83.6 J
83.6 kJ
209 J
209 kJ ANS: D

47. What property of matter can be measured using a calorimeter?
Assessment Questions
What property of matter can be measured using a calorimeter?
temperature
thermal expansion
specific heat
mass

48. What property of matter can be measured using a calorimeter?
Assessment Questions
What property of matter can be measured using a calorimeter?
temperature
thermal expansion
specific heat
mass ANS: C

49. Assessment Questions
Temperature is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another. True False

50. Assessment Questions
Temperature is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another. True False
ANS: F, Heat