1. 11 th Lec Phase Space

2. Collisionless Systems We showed collisions or deflections are rare Collisionless: stellar motions under influence of mean gravitational potential! Rational: Gravity is a long-distance force, decreases as r -2 –as opposed to the statistical mechanics of molecules in a box

3. Collisionless Systems stars move under influence of a smooth gravitational potential –determined by overall structure of system Statistical treatment of motions –collisionless Boltzman equation –Jeans equations

4. provide link between theoretical models (potentials) and observable quantities. instead of following individual orbits study motions as a function of position in system Use CBE, Jeans eqs. to determine mass distributions and total masses

5. Fluid approach:Phase Space Density PHASE SPACE DENSITY:Number of stars per unit volume per unit velocity volume f(x,v) (all called Distribution Function DF). The total number of particles per unit volume is given by:

6. E.g., air particles with Gaussian velocity (rms velocity = σ in x,y,z directions): The distribution function f(x,v) is defined by: mdN=f(x,v)d 3 xd 3 v where dN is the number of particles per unit volume with a given range of velocities.

7. The total mass is then given by the integral of the mass distribution function over space and velocity volume: Note:in spherical symmetry d 3 x=4πr 2 dr, for isotropic systems d 3 v=4πv 2 dv The total momentum is given by:

8. The mean velocity is given by:

9. Example:mean speed of air molecules in a box of dx 3 : These are gamma functions

10. Gamma Functions:

11. How to calculate dx 3 and dv 3

12. DF and its moments

13. Additive: subcomponents add up to the total gravitational mass

14. Full Notes online http://www-star.st-and.ac.uk/~hz4/gravdyn/ GraviDynFinal3.ppt GraviDynFinal3.pdfhttp://www-star.st-and.ac.uk/~hz4/gravdyn/

15. Liouvilles Theorem We previously introduced the concept of phase space density. The concept of phase space density is useful because it has the nice property that it is incompessible for collisionless systems. A COLLISIONLESS SYSTEM is one where there are no collisions. All the constituent particles move under the influence of the mean potential generated by all the other particles. INCOMPRESSIBLE means that the phase-space density doesn’t change with time.

16. Consider Nstar identical particles moving in a small bundle through spacetime on neighbouring paths. If you measure the bundles volume in phase space (Vol=Δ x Δ p ) as a function of a parameter λ (e.g., time t) along the central path of the bundle. It can be shown that: df/dt=0! It can be seen that the region of phase space occupied by the particle deforms but maintains its area. The same is true for y-p y and z-p z. This is equivalent to saying that the phase space density f=Nstars/Vol is constant.  df/dt=0! pxpx x p x x

17. motions in phase-space Flow of points in phase space corresponding to stars moving along their orbits. phase space coords: and the velocity of the flow is then: –where wdot is the 6-D vector related to w as the 3-D velocity vector v relates to x

18. stars are conserved in this flow, with no encounters, stars do not jump from one point to another in phase space. they drift slowly through phase space In the COMBINED potential of stars and dark matter

19. fluid analogy regard stars as making up a fluid in phase space with a phase space density assume that f is a smooth function, continuous and differentiable –good for N >10 5

20. as in a fluid, we have a continuity equation fluid in box of volume V, density , and velocity v, the change in mass is then: –Used the divergence theorem

21. continuity equation must hold for any volume V, hence: in same manner, density of stars in phase space obeys a continuity equation: If we integrate over a volume of phase space V, then 1 st term is the rate of change of the stars in V, while 2 nd term is the rate of outflow/inflow of stars from/into V. 0

22. Collisionless Boltzmann Equation Hence, we can simplify the continuity equation to the CBE: Vector form

23. in the event of stellar encounters, no longer collisionless require additional terms to rhs of equation

24. CBE cont. can define a Lagrangian derivative Lagrangian flows are where the coordinates travel along with the motions (flow) –hence x= x 0 = constant for a given star then we have: and rate of change of phase space density seen by observer travelling with star the flow of stellar phase points through phase space is incompressible f around the phase point of a given star remains the same

25. incompressible flow example of incompressible flow idealised marathon race: each runner runs at constant speed At start: the number density of runners is large, but they travel at wide variety of speeds At finish: the number density is low, but at any given time the runners going past have nearly the same speed

26. DF & Integrals of motion If some quantity I(x,v) is conserved i.e. Assume f(x,v) depends on (x,v) through the function I(x,v), so f=f(I(x,v)). Such phase space density is incompressible, i.e

27. Jeans theorem For most stellar systems the DF depends on (x,v) through generally three integrals of motion (conserved quantities), I i (x,v),i=1..3  f(x,v) = f(I 1 (x,v), I 2 (x,v), I 3 (x,v)) E.g., in Spherical Equilibrium, f is a function of energy E(x,v) and ang. mom. vector L(x,v).’s amplitude and z-component

28. 3D Analogy of 6D Phase space If DF(x,v) is analogous to density(x,y,z), Then DF(E,L,Lz) is ~ density(r,theta,phi), Integrals analogous to spherical coordinates –E(x,v) analogous to r(x,y,z) Isotropic DF(E) ~ spherical density(r) –Normalization dM=f(E)dx 3 dv 3 ~ dM=density(r)dr 3 –Have non-self-gravitating subcomponents: DF1+DF2, like rho1+rho2 to make up total gravity.

29. 12 th Lec Phase Space

30. Tensor Virial Theorem Equation of motion: This is Tensor Virial Theorem

31. E.g. So the time averaged value of v 2 is equal to the time averaged value of the circular velocity squared.

32. Scalar Virial Theorem the kinetic energy of a system with mass M is just where is the mean-squared speed of the system’s stars. Hence the virial theorem states that Virial

33. Stress Tensor describes a pressure which is anisotropic –not the same in all directions and we can refer to a “pressure supported” system the tensor is symmetric. can chose a set of orthogonal axes such that the tensor is diagonal Velocity ellipsoid with semi-major axes given by

34. Subcomponents in Spherical Equilibrium Potential Described by spherical potential φ(r) SPHERICAL subcomponent density ρ(r) depends on modulus of r. EQUILIBRIUM:Properties do not evolve with time.

35. In a spherical potential So =0 since the average value of xy will be zero.  =0

36. Spherical Isotropic f(E) Equilibrium Systems ISOTROPIC:The distribution function f(E) only depends on the modulus of the velocity rather than the direction. Note:the tangential direction has  and  components

37. Anisotropic DF f(E,L) in spherical potential. Energy E is conserved as: Angular Momentum Vector L is conserved as: DF depends on Velocity Direction through L=r X v Hence anisotropic

38. e.g., f(E,L) is an incompressible fluid The total energy of an orbit is given by: 0 for static potential, 0 for spherical potential So f(E,L) constant along orbit or flow

39. spherical Jeans eq. of a tracer density rho(r) Proof :

40. Jeans eq. Proof cont.

41. SELF GRAVITATING:The masses are kept together by their mutual gravity. In non-self gravitating systems the density that creates the potential is not equal to the density of stars. e.g a black hole with stars orbiting about it is NOT self gravitating.

42. 13 th Lec Phase Space

43. Velocity dispersions of a subcomponent in spherical potential For a spherically symmetric system we have a non-rotating galaxy has –and the velocity ellipsoids are spheroids with their symmetry axes pointing towards the galactic centre Define anisotropy

44. Spherical mass profile from velocity dispersions. Get M(r) or Vcir from: RHS: observations of dispersion and  as a function of radius r for a stellar population.

45. Isotropic Spherical system, β=0 This is the isotropic JEANS EQUATION, relating the pressure gradient to the gravitational force. Note:  2 =P Above Solution to Isotropic Jeans Eq: negative sign has gone since we reversed the limits.

46. Hydrostatic equilibrium  Isotropic spherical Jeans equation Conservation of momentum gives:

47. Tutorial g  (r)  (r)  2  (E) v esc M

48. Tutorial Question 3 Question: Show dispersion sigma is constant in potential Phi=V 0 2 ln(r). What might be the reason that this model is called Singular Isothermal Sphere?

49.  

50.  Since the circular velocity is independent of radius then so is the velocity dispersion  Isothermal.

51. Flattened Disks Here the potential is of the form  (R,z). No longer spherically symmetric. Now it is Axisymmetric

52. Question 4: Oblate Log. potential oblate galaxy with V circ ~ V 0 =100km/s Draw contours of the corresponding Self- gravitating Density to show it is unphysical. Let Lz=1kpc*V 0, E=0.55*V 0 2 +C 0, Plot effective potential contours in RZ plane to show it is an epicycle orbit. Taylor expand the potential near (R,z)=(1,0) to find epicycle frequencies and the approximate z-height and peri-apo range.

53. Orbits in Axisymmetric Potentials (disk galaxies) cylindrical (R, ,z) symmetry z-axis stars in equatorial plane: same motions as in spherically symmetric potential –non-closed rosette orbits stars moving out of plane –can be reduced to 2-D problem in (R,z) –conservation of z-angular momentum, L z z R y x  R 2 =x 2 +y 2

54. Angular momentum about the z-axis is conserved, toque(r  F=0) if  no dependence on . Energy is also conserved (no time-dependence) Eliminating in the energy equation using conservation of angular momentum gives: Specific energy density in 3D  eff

55. Total Angular momentum almost conserved These orbits can be thought of as being planar with more or less fixed eccentricity. The approximate orbital planes have a fixed inclination to the z axis but they process about this axis. star picks up angular momentum as it goes towards the plane and returns it as it leaves.

56. Orbital energy Energy of orbit is (per unit mass) effective potential is the gravitational potential energy plus the specific kinetic energy associated with motion in  direction orbit bound within

57. The angular momentum barrier for an orbit of energy E is given by The effective potential cannot be greater than the energy of the orbit. The equations of motion in the 2D meridional (RZ)plane then become:.

58. Thus, the 3D motion of a star in an axisymmetric potential  (R,z) can be reduced to the motion of a star in a plane (Rz). This (non uniformly) rotating plane with cartesian coordinates (R,z) is often called the MERIDIONAL PLANE.  eff (R,z) is called the EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL. The orbits are bound between two radii (where the effective potential equals the total energy) and oscillates in the z direction.

59. The minimum in  eff occurs at the radius at which a circular orbit has angular momentum L z. The value of  eff at the minimum is the energy of this circular orbit. R  eff E  R cir

60. The effective potential is the sum of the gravitational potential energy of the orbiting star and the kinetic energy associated with its motion in the  direction (rotation). Any difference between  eff and E is simply kinetic energy of the motion in the (R,z) plane. Since the kinetic energy is non negative, the orbit is restricted to the area of the meridional plane satisfying. The curve bounding this area is called the ZERO VELOCITY CURVE since the orbit can only reach this curve if its velocity is instantaneously zero. E -  eff (R,z)>= 0

61. Nearly circular orbits: epicycles In disk galaxies, many stars (disk stars) are on nearly-circular orbits EoM: x=R-R g –expand in Taylor series about (x,z)=(0,0) –then

62. When the star is close to z=0 the effective potential can be expanded to give Zero, changes sign above/below z=0 equatorial plane. 2 So, the orbit is oscillating in the z direction.

63. epicyclic approximation ignore all higher / cross terms: EoM: harmonic oscillators –epiclyclic frequency : –vertical frequency : –with

64. epicycles cont. using the circular frequency , given by –so that disk galaxy:  ~ constant near centre –so  ~ 2   ~ declines with R, »slower than Keplerian R -3/2 »lower limit is  ~  in general  <  2  R V rot

65. Example:Oort’s constants near Sun –where R 0 is the galacto-centric distance then  2 = -4A(A-B) + 4(A-B) 2 = -4B(A-B) = -4B  0 Obs. A = 14.5 km/s /kpc and B=-12 km/s /kpc

66. the sun makes 1.3 oscillations in the radial direction per azimuthal (2  ) orbit –epicyclic approximation not valid for z-motions when |z|>300 pc

67. General Jeans Equations CBE of the phase space density f is eq. of 7 variables and hence generally difficult to solve Gain insights by taking moments of the CBE where integrate over all possible velocities –U=1, v j, v j v k

68. 1st Jeans (continuity) equation define spatial density of stars n(x) and the mean stellar velocity v(x) then our zeroth moment equation becomes

69. 3rd Jeans Equation similar to the Euler equation for a fluid flow: –last term of RHS represents pressure force

70. JEANS EQUATION for oblate rotator : a steady-state axisymmetrical system in which ASSUME  ij 2 is isotropic and the only streaming motion is azimuthal rotation:

71. The velocity dispersions in this case are given by: If we know the forms of  (R,z) and  (R,z) then at any radius R we may integrate the Jeans equation in the z direction to obtain  2.

72. Obtaining  2 Inserting this into the jeans equation in the R direction gives:

73. 20 th Lec orbits

74. Applications of the Jeans Equations I. The mass density in the solar neighbourhood Using velocity and density distribution perpendicular to the Galactic disc –cylindrical coordinates. –Ignore R dependence

75. E.g.: Total Mass of spherical Milky WAY Motions of globular clusters and satellite galaxies around 100kpc of MW –Need n(r), v r 2,  to find M(r), including dark halo Several attempts all suffer from problem of small numbers N ~ 15 For the isotropic case, Little and Tremaine TOTAL mass of 2.4 (+1.3, -0,7) 10 11 M sol 3 times the disc  need DM

76. Power-law model of Milky Way Isotropic orbits: Radial orbits If we assume a power law for the density distribution –E.g. Flat rotation a=1, Self-grav gamma=2, Radial anis.  –E.g., Point mass a=0, Tracer gamma=3.5, Isotro 

77. Mass of the Milky Way: point-mass potential model We find

78. Vertical Jeans equation Small z/R in the solar neighbourhood, R~8.5 kpc, |z|< 1kpc, R-dependence neglected. Hence, reduces to vertical hydrostatic eq.:

79. mass density in solar neighbourhood Drop R, theta in Poisson’s equation in cylindrical coordinates:

80. local mass density  =  0 Finally all quantities on the LHS are, in principle, determinable from observations. RHS Known as the Oort limit. Uncertain due to double differentiation!

81. local mass density Don’t need to calculate for all stars –just a well defined population (ie G stars, BDs etc) –test particles (don’t need all the mass to test potential) Procedure –determine the number density n, and the mean square vertical velocity, v z 2, the variance of the square of the velocity dispersion in the solar neighbourhood. –need a reliable “tracer population” of stars whose motions do not reflect formation hence old population that has orbited Galaxy many times ages > several x 10 9 years N.B. problems of double differentiation of the number density n derived from observations need a large sample of stars to obtain v z as f(z) –ensure that v z is constant in time –ie stars have forgotten initial motion

82. local mass density > 1000 stars required Oort :  0 = 0.15 M sol pc -3 K dwarf stars (Kuijken and Gilmore 1989) –MNRAS 239, 651 Dynamical mass density of  0 = 0.11 M sol pc -3 also done with F stars (Knude 1994)

83. Observed mass density of stars plus interstellar gas within a 20 pc radius is  0 = 0.10 M sol pc -3 can get better estimate of surface density out to 700 pc  ~ 90 M sol pc -2 from rotation curve  rot ~ 200 M sol pc -2

84. Question 5:

85. Helpful Math/Approximations (To be shown at AS4021 exam) Convenient Units Gravitational Constant Laplacian operator in various coordinates Phase Space Density f(x,v) relation with the mass in a small position cube and velocity cube

86. 21 th Lec: MOND orbits